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Despite numerous works devoted to hybrid origin of parthenogenesis in reptiles, the causes of hybridization between different species, resulting in the origin of parthenogenetic forms, remain uncertain. Recent studies demonstrate that sexual species considered parental to parthenogenetic rock lizards (Darevskia spp.) avoid interspecific mating in the secondary overlap areas. A specific combination of environmental factors during last glaciation period was critical for ectotherms, which led to a change in their distribution and sex ratio. Biased population structure (e.g., male bias) and limited available distributional range favored the deviation of reproductive behavior when species switched to interspecific mates. To date, at least 7 diploid parthenogenetic species of rock lizards (Darevskia, Lacertidae) originated through interspecific hybridization in the past. The cytogenetic specifics of meiosis, in particular the weak checkpoints of prophase I, may have allowed the formation of hybrid karyotypes in rock lizards. Hybridization and polyploidization are 2 important evolutionary forces in the genus Darevskia. At present, throughout backcrossing between parthenogenetic and parental species, the triploid and tetraploid hybrid individuals appear annually, but no triploid species found among Darevskia spp. on current stage of evolution. The speciation by hybridi- zation with the long-term stage of diploid parthenogenetic species, non-distorted meiosis, together with the high ecological plasticity of Caucasian rock lizards provide us with a new model for considering the pathways and persistence of the evolution of parthenogenesis in vertebrates.

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The lacertid lizard Gallotia galloti inhabits drastically different environments on the island of Tenerife, from sea level to > 3500 m, encompassing mesic as well as extremely arid sites. To obtain a first exploratory overview of the thermophysiology of lizards in this range of environments, we experimentally inferred preferred temperature (Tpref) and instant evaporative water loss (IWL) in 63 individuals from five bioclimatically distinct sites. We found statistically significant but weak differences between individual median Tpref values across sites, without an obvious relationship to bioclimate. Considering only adult male lizards, the highest Tpref values were found at one mesic and one very arid site. IWL differences were also significantly different across sites, and this variable was positively correlated with rainfall if analysed at the level of individual lizards, a hypothesis that requires testing against more extensive data sets. It appears that G. galloti occupies an extensive range of bioclimates without heavily adjusting its thermal physiology to local conditions.

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Signalling plays a key role regulating the intensity of animal contests. In this study, we evaluate the role of two (potential) chromatic signals in determining the outcome of male-male combats in Podarcis muralis lizards from a population showing polymorphic ventral coloration, with discrete white, yellow and orange morphs. As in other lacertids, males of this species display a row of ventrolateral ultraviolet (UV)- blue in their outer ventral scales (OVS) with a mean peak reflectance of 372.35nm. Previous studies have suggested that some chromatic variables of these patches may signal individual fighting ability and/or physical condition. In order to test this possibility, we staged combats between 60 adult lizards (20 individuals/morph), where each lizard confronted rivals from each morph in a tournament with a balanced design. Intruder/resident condition was controlled in order to avoid its strong effect in determining contest outcome. A general dominance/fighting ability ranking was calculated using the Bradley-Terry model, and used to explore the general relationship between morphs, chromatic measurements of the UV patches, and fighting ability. Unexpectedly, we did not find an effect of the UVblue patches on contest outcome, but we found a morph-specific bias in fighting ability: orange males lose more combats with other morphs than yellow and white males.

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The interplay between morphological (structures) and behavioral (acts) signals in contest assessment is still poorly understood. During contests, males of the common wall lizard (Podarcis muralis) display both morphological (i.e. static color patches) and behavioral (i.e. raised-body display, foot shakes) traits. We set out to evaluate the role of these putative signals in determining the outcome and intensity of contests by recording agonistic behavior in ten mesocosm enclosures. We find that contests are typically won by males with relatively more black coloration, which are also more aggressive. However, black coloration does not seem to play a role in rival assessment, and behavioral traits are stronger predictors of contest outcome and winner aggression than prior experience, morphology, and coloration. Contest intensity is mainly driven by resource- and self-assessment, with males probably using behavioral threat (raised-body displays) and de-escalation signals (foot shakes) to communicate their willingness to engage/persist in a fight. Our results agree with the view that agonistic signals used during contests are not associated with mutual evaluation of developmentally-fixed attributes, and instead animals monitor each other to ensure that their motivation is matched by their rival. We emphasize the importance of testing the effect of signals on receiver behavior and discuss that social recognition in territorial species may select receivers to neglect potential morphological signals conveying static information on sex, age, or intrinsic quality.

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Color polymorphisms are widely studied to identify the mechanisms responsible for the origin and maintenance of phenotypic variability in nature. Two of the mechanisms of balancing selection currently thought to explain the long-term persistence of polymorphisms are the evolution of alternative phenotypic optima through correlational selection on suites of traits including color and heterosis. Both of these mechanisms can generate differences in offspring viability and fitness arising from different morph combinations. Here, we examined the effect of parental morph combination on fertilization success, embryonic viability, newborn quality, antipredator, and foraging behavior, as well as inter-annual survival by conducting controlled matings in a polymorphic lacertid Podarcis muralis, where color morphs are frequently assumed to reflect alternative phenotypic optima (e.g., alternative reproductive strategies). Juveniles were kept in outdoor tubs for a year in order to study inter-annual growth, survival, and morph inheritance. In agreement with a previous genome-wide association analysis, morph frequencies in the year-old juveniles matched the frequencies expected if orange and yellow expressions depended on recessive homozygosity at 2 separate loci. Our findings also agree with previous literature reporting higher reproductive output of heavy females and the higher overall viability of heavy newborn lizards, but we found no evidence for the existence of alternative breeding investment strategies in female morphs, or morph-combination effects on offspring viability and behavior. We conclude that inter-morph breeding remains entirely viable and genetic incompatibilities are of little significance for the maintenance of discrete color morphs in P. muralis from the Pyrenees.

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Explaining the evolutionary origin and maintenance of color polymorphisms is a major challenge in evolutionary biology. Such polymorphisms are commonly thought to reflect the existence of alternative behavioral or life-history strategies under negative frequency-dependent selection. The European common wall lizard Podarcis muralis exhibits a striking ventral color polymorphism that has been intensely studied and is often assumed to reflect alternative reproductive strategies, similar to the iconic “rock–paper–scissors” system described in the North American lizard Uta stansburiana. However, available studies so far have ignored central aspects in the behavioral ecology of this species that are crucial to assess the existence of alternative reproductive strategies. Here, we try to fill this gap by studying the social behavior, space use, and reproductive performance of lizards showing different color morphs, both in a free-ranging population from the eastern Pyrenees and in ten experimental mesocosm enclosures. In the natural population, we found no differences between morphs in site fidelity, space use, or male–female spatial overlap. Likewise, color morph was irrelevant to sociosexual behavior, space use, and reproductive success within experimental enclosures. Our results contradict the commonly held hypothesis that P. muralis morphs reflect alternative behavioral strategies, and suggest that we should instead turn our attention to alternative functional explanations.

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Colour signals play a key role in regulating the intensity and outcome of animal contests. Males of the common wall lizard (Podarcis muralis) show conspicuous ventrolateral ultraviolet (UV)-blue and black patches. In addition, some populations express a striking ventral colour polymorphism (i.e., discrete orange, white and yellow morphs). In this study, we set out to evaluate the potential signalling function of these colour patches by staging pairwise combats between 60 size-matched adult lizards (20 per morph). Combats were held in a neutral arena, with each lizard facing rivals from the three morphs in a tournament with a balanced design. We then calculated a fighting ability ranking using the Bradley–Terry model, and used it to explore whether ventral colour morph, the size of UV-blue and black patches or the spectral characteristics of UV-blue patches (i.e., brightness, hue, chroma) are good predictors of fighting ability. We did not find an effect of the UV-blue patches on contest outcome, but the size of black patches emerged as a good predictor of fighting ability. We also found that winners were more aggressive when facing rivals with black patches of similar size, suggesting that black patches play a role in rival assessment and fighting rules. Finally, we found that orange males lost fights against heteromorphic males more often than yellow or white males. In light of these results, we discuss the potential signalling function of ventrolateral and ventral colour patches in mediating agonistic encounters in this species.

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The purpose of this study is to determine the effect of pesticides on the Acanthodactylus scutellatus clan in the Al-Wadi region and in comparison with two different clans of the same rank, i.e. by comparing the Scincus scincus clan that comes from the “Al-Arish desert” and Water Duty area, and the Acanthodactylus scutellatus clan from the agricultural area located in “Umayya and Nasa” `. Our work is based on the determination of the protein and catalase activity of Ras in Acanthodactylus scutellatus samples. - In our work, we chose the Belford 1957 methodology, which depends on slaughtering samples in a correct manner, and then we preserved the samples according to the stipulated conditions and charters. - We crushed the following organs: the head, the liver, and the rest of the body. We get the test results: A very significant increase in “catalase” activity in the head was recorded in the farming samples of Acanthodactylus scutellatus, which recorded 352.8 ± 0.001 μM/mn/mg compared to the samples of “catalase” activity in the head of type Acanthodactylus scutellatus, which recorded 63.7 ±25.7 μM/ mn/mg

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The Italian lizard (Podarcis sicula) is the most diffused reptile in Italy, but it is also present in other European countries. This lizard belongs to the Lacertidae family, lives near walls, slants and along the borders of the paths; its diet includes bugs and aracnids. No data are so far available in literature about the three-dimensional morphology of the tongue of Podarcis sicula, therefore the aim of the present paper was to study by scanning electron and light microscopy the three-dimensional characteristics of the dorsal lingual surface and moreover the presence of chemosensory receptors like the taste buds in the oral cavity. Our results demonstrate that the Podarcis sicula tongue is a triangular muscular membranous organ, dorsoventrally flattened and that three different areas can be observed: a bifid apex, a body and a root. No papillae were observed in the apex, characterized by a flattened mucosa and by two deep median pouches. In the body cylindrical papillae with a flat surface are present, aborally gradually substituted by imbricated papillae. Foliate-like papillae were observed in the lateral parts of the tongue body. No sensory structures were showed on the lingual dorsal surface, while they were numerous in the oral cavity, particularly on the gingival epithelium. The light microscopy shows, on the dorsal surface, a stratified pavimentous not keratinized epithelium, conversely keratinized along the ventral surface. Many caliciform cells on the lateral parts of the papillae, deputed to the secretion of mucus, were also observed. Therefore, the results obtained in this paper could give a contribution to the knowledge of the tongue anatomy in a species widely diffused in different European countries and could be of help for clinical purposes in reptiles.

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The reptiles and amphibians of the Gaza Strip and Wadi Gaza were surveyed during a period of two years (2002 – 2004). A total number of 21 herpetofaunistic species (2 turtles, 8 lizards, 8 snakes and 3 anurans) belonging to three orders and 15 families was encountered. The species described were all resident and were mostly found throughout the year. The diversity of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in the study area encouraged the occurrence of the species. However, the ever-increasing human impact on the existing natural resources in the Gaza Strip has threatened the ecology of wildlife, where the populations of frogs and many reptilian species are declining in an alarming fashion. The results reinforce the necessity of longterm inventories in order to understand the ecology and the dynamics of herpetofaunistic and other wildlife communities in the study area. Finally, the authors recommend improving cooperation of different parties to enhance the public awareness among the Palestinians and to implement environmental laws and legislation to conserve the sensitive and rare species of herpetofauna.

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The cranial musculature of species of ten families of lizards (Gekkonidae, Teiidae, Gymnophthalmidae, Anguidae, Scincidae, Lacertidae, Tropiduridae, Liolaemidae, Leiosauridae, and Polychrotidae) was analyzed. Using 93 myological cranial characters, a cladistic analysis was performed. To root the trees, data of Sphenodon were added to the matrix. The cladistic analysis yielded 129 equally parsimonious trees with a fit of 426.0 (39%) and 467 steps. In the consensus tree we observed only five nodes congruent with traditional phylogenetic hypothesis of the groups analyzed: teiids + gymnophthalmids (node 128); geckos (node 136); liolaemids (node 116); genus Liolaemus (node 115); and genus Phymaturus (node 92). Thus in these groups, phylogeny seems to be better predictor of muscle morphology than ecology or diet. They are many problematic groups whose monophyly requires further analysis (tropidurids, polychrotids, and scincids). In no case we were able to recognize differences that could be attributed to functional features.

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This paper describes the morphological characteristics of a new species of Haemogregarina Danilewsky, 1885, from naturally infected Acanthodactylus boskianus (Daudin) in Egypt, based on both blood and tissue stages. The prevalence of infection was found to be 66% (33/50). The blood stages were found to be confined to the erythrocytes and could be differentiated into small and large forms. The small form (trophozoites) measures 8 × 3.5 μm, whereas the large form (mature gamonts) measures 12 × 5 μm. The tissue stages were observed only in the liver. Meronts occurred within parasitophorous vacuoles in hepatocytes and ranged from mononucleate forms to mature forms that contained c.10–15 merozoites.

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To date, three species of Isospora Schneider, 1881 have been described from lizards of the genus Acanthodactylus Wiegmann. Two of these, although representing separate species parasitizing two different hosts, Acanthodactylus boskianus Daudin in Egypt and A. schmidti Haas in Saudi Arabia, were described under the name Isospora acanthodactyli. The third species is Isospora abdallahi Modrý, Koudela et Slapeta, 1998 from A. boskianus in Egypt. In the present study, Isospora alyousifi nom. n. is proposed to accommodate Isospora acanthodactyli Alyousif et Al-Shawa, 1997 (homonym of I. acanthodactyli Sakran, Fayed, El-Toukhy et Abdel-Gawad, 1994) and its redescription based on newly collected material is provided.

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Haemogregarina damiettae was previously described form Acanthodactylus boskianus in Egypt, and the description was base only on the blood stages with no data on the tissue stages. In the present study, both blood and tissue stages were encountered. The prevalence of infection was found to be 60 % (30/50). The blood stages were found to be confined to the erythrocytes and none in the leucocytes. The erythrocytic stages could be differentiated into small and large forms. The small form, trophozoite, measured 10 × 3 μm, while the large form, mature gamontocyte, measured 18 × 5 μm. The cytoplasm of the mature gamontocyte was finely granular and faintly stained with Giemsa, while the nucleus was relatively large and occupied about one third of the body length and was formed of a network of chromatin filaments. Infected erythrocytes were hypertrophied and their nuclei either longitudinally stretched or split into two fragments. The tissue stages were observed in the lungs and hearts of the infected lizards. The merogonic stages were evident as multinucleated ovoid to subspherical bodies enclosed by parasitophorous vacuoles. Mature meronts measured 16 × 12 μm and estimated to produce 15–25 merozoites.

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Chemical treatments still constitute the main method used to control desert locust during the invasion phases. In addition to their relatively high costs, these pesticides are not target specific in the majority of the cases; they can have negative effects on the biotic and abiotic components of the ecosystem. The goal of our study, conducted under natural conditions, was the assessment of the ecological effect of ethyl chlorpyrifos and fenitrothion, the most widely used organophosphate pesticides in desert locust control in Niger. To assess the impact of pesticides on the relative abundance of lacertid lizard Acanthodactylus boskianus and Acanthodactylus sp before and after treatments, we used the method of pedestrian transect. The analysis of the variance was used to carry out a statistical comparison based on BACI (Before-After-Control-Impact) method. The experiments were carried out in a randomized complete block design with three replications. The experimental plots had an area of 16 ha each, the treatments consisted of ethyl chlorpyrifos at the rate of 225 ga.i./ha; fenitrothion at the rate of 450 ga.i./ha. Unsprayed plots were used as controls. These rates are those recommended by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) to control desert locust. Chemical treatments were carried out in total cover using a battery driven hand-held spinning disk sprayer (Micro-Ulva®), in accordance with the technical directives of the FAO for ultra-low volume applications. The field trial was carried out in the valley of Tafidet located in the eastern side of Aïr Mountains in Niger, from June to December of the years 2004 to 2006. Ineach experimental plot, two lines of 300 m length and 10 m width were used as area of counting. These lines of counting skirted one of the diagonals of each plot. The results demonstrate the noxious effect of ethyl chlorpyrifos and fenitrothion (organophosphate pesticides) on lizard. We recorded the first decrease of population at 9 days after treatment. The first decrease of the lizard populations was noted in the phase I (1-12 DAT). We also recorded the first dead or moribund lizards between 9 and 21 days after chemical treatment. The number of death or moribund lizards ranged from 0, 33±0.57 to 4±1 in the plots treated with chlorpyrifos and fenitrothion respectively. The optimum of the efficacy of the pesticides was noted in phase II (15-30 DAT) it was decreased from 76% to 98% with chlorpyrifos and fenitrothion. It was also observed; the chemicals had a delayed effect on the lizard. In the last phase (45-60 days after the treatment) no death or moribund lizards is noted in all plots (treated and untreated).

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1. Das Geruchsvermögen ist bei den Eidechsen (L. viridis, L. agilis, L. muralis) gut ausgebildet. Sämtliche Beute wird gerochen 2. Die Nase spielt eine bei weitem größere Rolle als das Jabobsonsche Organ. Dieses tritt, übereinstimmend mit den Befunden Kahmanns, nur akzessorisch in Funktion zum unmittelbaren Prüfen vor oder in dem Munde. 3. Der Beutegruch wird durch die Nase aus ca. 8 bis 10 cm Entfernung sichtbar wahrgenommen (durch die gesteigerte Brustatmung, die als „Pumpen“ bezeichnet wurde, erkenntlich) und löst Suchbewegungen aus. 4. Dieser allein ist bei Ausfall des optischen Sinnes befähigt, Zubeißen und Freßakt, selbst bei ungeeigneten Objekten, auszulösen. Es ist höchstwahrscheinlich, daß ein Geruchsscheme den Tieren angeboren ist. 5. Eidechsen lassen sich entgegen diesem angeborenen Geruchsscheme auf fremden Geruch positiv dressieren, wie Versuche mit stark süßlich duftenden Öl aufzeigten. Es gelang, andressierte Eidechsen nach Steinen usw., die mit Dressurduft markiert waren, beißen zu lassen, selbst als die Tiere im Besitz ihres optischen Sinnes waren. 6. Es hat den Anschein, als würden die Lacerten zirka eine Woche zur Bildung neuer Assoziationen benötigen, sobald sie täglich andressiert werden. Diese Zeitspanne wurde ungefähr bei den von mir durchgeführten Geruchs- und Geschmacksdressuren, sowie auch bei den Gehördresuren von Berger (1924) als Lernzeit benötigt. 7. Die Eidechsen konnten durch Vergällung einer bestimmten Beute mit Kochsalz dazu gebracht werden, bei gleichzeitiger Ausschaltung des optischen Sinnes diese Beute zu meiden, nahmen jedoch andere Nahrungsobjekte an. Durch Engerstellung der Verschiedenheit der Beutetiere konnte gezeigt werden, daß die Echsen in der Lage sind, selbst feinste Qualitätsunterschiede des Geruches zu registrieren. Sie vermochten Grillen von Locustiden, und weiters Locustiden untereinander geruchlich zu unterscheiden, auch wenn diese lebend und unvergällt angeboten wurden. 8. Auf dieses Vermögen dürfte die Bildung eines erworbenen Nahrungskreises zurückzuführen sein. Für sein Bestehen spricht die Bevorzugung von Lieblingsfutter, sowie die Ablehnung gewisser Beutetiere schon aus relativ großer Entfernung. 9. Freilandbeobachtungen zeigen, daß der Geruch bei Nahrungssuche, in unübersichtlichem Gelände von großer Bedeutung sein dürfte, analog zu den Feststellungen im Laborversuch. 10. Der arteigene Geruch ist bei Lacerta viridis wesentlich am endgültigen Festlegen im Verhalten gegenüber dem Artgenossen als Gegner oder Geschlechtspartner beteiligt. Ein Männchen dieser Art kämpft nicht gegen ein anderes, sobald dieser Reiz in der Reizsumme fehlt. Umgekehrt wird bei Anwesenheit des typischen Geruches gekämpft, auch wenn die optischen Merkzeichen stark verändert erscheinen; daraus wird die Bedeutung dieses Faktors im Reizsummenphänomen beim Paarungsverhalten ersichtlich. Der geschlechts-charakteristische Geruch stammt nicht aus den Schenkelporen, da eine operative Entfernung derselben keinerlei Änderung des Verhaltens bewirkte. 11. Die Nasenhöhle registriert Luftfeuchtigkeit und ermöglicht den Eidechsen das Wasser gerichtet aufzufinden. Die Nase darf daher als Alarm- und Leitsinnesorgan bezeichnet werden. Bei der Auffindung von Wasser kann der optische Sinn zusätzlich in Aktion treten, wobvei auf stark lichtbrechende Stellen angesprochen wird. 12. Bei Ausschaltung des Olfactorius sind die Tiere nicht imstande, Wasser zu finden, außer in optisch günstigen Fällen. 13. Freilandbeobachtungen zeigen, daß die Eidechsen durch Tau und Regenfall ihr Wasserbedürfnis gedeckt finden. Bei großer Trockenheit ziehen sich die Tiere zu einem Trockenschlaf zurück, den sie unterbrechen, sobald genügend Feuchtigkeit vorhanden ist. Die Luftfeuchtigkeit wird von den versteckt liegenden Tieren durch die Nase perzipiert und veranlaßt das Aufsuchen der Feuchtigkeitsquelle. Diese Annahme machen Freilandbeobachtungen auch in der natürlichen Umwelt höchst wahrscheinlich.

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The differentiation of the thyroid primordium of lacertilian species is poorly understood. The present study reports on the ultrastructural analysis of the developing thyroid primordium in the sand lizard (Lacerta agilis) during the early stages of differentiation. The early thyroid primordium of sand lizard embryos was composed of cellular cords that contained single cells with a giant lipid droplet, which were eliminated by specific autophagy (lipophagy). The follicular lumens at the periphery of the primordium differentiated even before the division of the cellular cords. When the single cells within the cords started to die through paraptosis, the adjacent cells started to polarise and junctional complexes began to form around them. After polarisation and clearing up after the formation of the lumens, the cellular cords divided into definitive follicles. The cellular cords in the central part of the primordium started to differentiate later than those at the periphery. The cellular cords divided into presumptive follicles first and only later differentiated into definitive follicles. During this process, a population of centrally located cells was removed through apoptosis to form the lumen. Although the follicular lumen in sand lizard embryos is differentiated by cavitation similar to that in the grass snake, there were very important differences during the early stages of the differentiation of the cellular cords and the formation of the thyroid follicles.

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The patterns of seasonal and daily activities of two parthenogenetic species of lizards (Darevskia armeniaca, D. unisexualis) sharing the same territories in the zone of hybridization in central region of Armenia demonstrate ecologically similar potential niches.

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Parthenogenesis in reptiles was fort he first time discovered in the Caucasian rock lizards of the genus Darevskia (family Lacertidae). There re recognized 7 all-female diploid species occupying rocky habitats of the Armenian Highland. All oft hem (as well as other parthenogenetoc reptiles) originated from hybridisation between bisexual species and display high levels of heterozygosity. The hybridisations most probably occurred after the last glaciations period. It was found out that maternal, respectivily paternal species are phylogenetically related and that most probably the origian of parthenogenesis is Phylogenetically constrained in these lizards. The role of sex chromosomes, determination of sex and other possible factors determining the origin of parthenogenesis are also discussed. The paerthenogenetic Darevskia and other unisexual reptiles have in common relatively young age and very little genetic variability. However, some hyperunstable microsatellite loci were also detected. The evolutionary perspective of parthenogens doesn´t seem tob e long-termed, but there have been observed also peculiarities concerning adaptability of these species. Some questions like the meiotic mechanisms, maintenance of high heterozygosity or effects of epigenetic factors on clonal species aren´t yet fully resolved.

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Parthenogenetic lizards of the genus Darevskia as an evolutionary model. Several parthenogenetic lineages occur within the lizards of the genus Darevskia (Sauria: Lacertidae) which are endemic to southern Transcaucasus. High level of heterozygosity, cause by thein hybrid origin, is one of the crucial aspects of thein evolutionary potential, as well as the asexual reproduction. Heterosis on one side is in the opposition to the outbreeding depression and genetic uniformity of the clones on the other side. Aim of this work is to evaluace if these aspects influence viability of parthenogenetic species and differ them from the sexual ones. We chose the amount of asymmetries as a measure of developmental instability, which we studied on three meristic characters. We also evaluated the pattern of asymmetries in lateral blue spots, which are of signaling importace in lacertid lizards. Our results suggest that there isn`t significant difference between parthenogenetic and sexual species in developmental stability, but the sexual ones are more sensitive to population changes. Absence of males may have perhaps the greatest influence on coloration, resulting in loss of symmetry in the blue spots.

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Parthenogenetic species are usually considered to be short‐lived due to the accumulation of adverse mutations, lack of genetic variability, and inability to adapt to changing environment. If so, one may expect that the phenotype of clonal organisms may reflect such genetic and/or environmental stress. To test this hypothesis, we compared the developmental stability of bisexual and parthenogenetic lizards of the genus Darevskia. We assessed asymmetries in three meristic traits: ventral, preanal, and supratemporal scales. Our results suggest that the amount of ventral and preanal asymmetries is significantly higher in clones compared with their maternal, but not paternal, progenitor species. However, it is questionable, whether this is a consequence of clonality, as it may be considered a mild form of outbreeding depression as well. Moreover, most ventral asymmetries were found in the bisexual species Darevskia valentini. We suggest that greater differences in asymmetry levels among bisexuals may be, for instance, a consequence of the population size: the smaller the population, the higher the inbreeding and the developmental instability. On the basis of the traits examined in this study, the parthenogens do not seem to be of significantly poorer quality.

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The aimof this study was to determine the spatial use of the main biophysical elements present in the agro-silvo-pastoral system (trees and shrubs, fallen trunks and branches, rocky outcrops and pilesof stones/walls) by three lizard speciess: Acanthodactylus erythrurus, Podarcis virescensand Psammodromus algirus. However, A. erythruruswas not found in the ten plots studied. For the remaining two species, the hypothesis tests showed that there are differences in the number of individuals when comparing the fiveplots with grazing with the five plots without grazing,within the montado landscape. Where there are rocky outcrops, P. virescens predominates (especially in grazing areas), while Ps. algirusmainly occurs in areas without grazing. At the same time, there are also differences in the elements used as a perch and as a refuge between the two lizards. This type of work helps the creation of management plans by farmers and owners / decision makers, towardsan efficient conservation of reptiles.

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Raillietiella morenoi sp. n., a new cephalobae- nid pentastomid found in the lungs of Gallotia atlantica collected in the Canary Islands, is described. The new species belongs to the sharp-tipped posterior-hook type. The annulus number, morphology, and dimensions of copulatory spicules and the dimensions of anterior and posterior hooks separate Raillietiella sp. n. from the other raillietiedid sharp-tipped posterior-hook species of small lizard parasites in Africa. The host character of endemic protected species of G. atlantica in Alegranza Island posed great difficulty in obtaining more parasite materials. However, more studies are required to state the variability of this species and its possible distribution in other species in the Canary Islands, as well as in other Gallotia spp.

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Alto de São Bento is a granite hill near the city of Évora, with floristic, geological and landscape interest, having been declared a núcleo museológico (NMASB). In this study, the local herpetofaunistic diversity was evaluated, the results of which demonstrated the presence of 12 species of amphibians and 11 species of reptiles in the area. Salamandra salamandra and natterjack toad Epidalea calamita predominate in the sampled amphibians; the most common reptiles are the Psammodromus algirus and the gecko Tarentola mauritanica. Such a contribution of diversity seems regionally important, however the NMASB model does not seem efficient in ist conservation, so a redesign into an ecomuseum is suggested.

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Identification of extremely high levels of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence divergence within reptiles from North Africa is commonplace. This high divergence often compares with interspecific levels among widely accepted species, leading to the hypothesis of the occurrence of species complexes. Indeed, in many examples, data from nuclear markers support such taxonomic recognition. Such is the case of two recently recognized ocellated lizard species of the genus Timon, T. nevadensis, from Spain, and T. kurdistanicus, from the Middle East, which both showed notable genetic differentiation from their sister taxa. In North Africa, highly divergent mtDNA lineages of Timon tangitanus were previously identified but not corroborated with nuclear markers. Here we expand geographic sampling across the range of Timon tangitanus and complement mtDNA sequences with data from nuclear markers (MC1R and ACM4). We identify four divergent mtDNA lineages, at a level similar to some reptile species. However, the nuclear markers show limited differentiation and lack of lineage sorting. This and some other recent assessments within reptiles discourage the use of mtDNA data alone as a proxy for taxonomic units, demonstrating once more the need for integrative taxonomic approaches.

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Tall Sufan, a 1.5-hectare hill in an area with a number of archaeological sites, is located 1.5 km west of the city of Nablus. This site contains remains from Bronze (3600–1200 BC) and Iron Age II (918–539 BC), Roman (63 BC–324 AD), Byzantine (325–638 AD/16H) and Islamic periods (638/16 Hijra–1918). From the Ottoman-Turkish period until modern times it was in agricultural use. However, in recent decades, human activities have destroyed sections of Tall Sufan. The surviving features include a fortification system, a pond, an aqueduct, a watermill and several dry-stone terrace walls, cylindrical weigh oil press, silos, and burial caves. This article describes these structural elements and compares them to similar sites in Palestine. In addition, it provides information on coins recovered during the 2016–2017 campaigns.

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In the course of the faunistic inventory in Wadi Ramm Protected Area, a total of 34 species of reptiles representing nine families (Gekkonidae, Chamaeleonidae, Agamidae, Lacertidae, Scincidae, Varanidae, Leptotyphlopidae, Colubridae, and Viperidae) were recorded from different habitats in Wadi Ramm and its closest vicinity. Three species (Lacerta cf. kulzeri, Chamaeleo chamaeleon, and Ablepharus rueppellii) are considered to represent relicts from earlier, more humid periods. Habitat preferences for collected species are included.

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We studied diet and food niche relationships among sympatric lizards in two areas in Jordan using stomach contents. We found that 77 stomachs from six species in the eastern deserts and 45 stomachs from three species in the western highlands resulted in 2,478 and 1,935 prey items, respectively. Stomachs from the eastern desert contained 1–216 prey items with an average of 31.5 items (median = 16) and 1–329 prey items with an average of 43.0 (median = 13) from the western highlands. The lizards were primarily insectivorous, with ants and beetles making up the highest percentages. Additionally, we identified a snake (Eirenis rothii), a freshwater fish, and four smaller lizards in the prey remains. The results showed similar niche breadths and high food-niche overlap values, especially among the agamid lizards, suggesting that some opportunistic feeding habits are likely influenced by prey availability and similar foraging strategies. Based on similar niche breadths and high food niche overlap values, we believe that interspecific competition is an important factor in organizing these lizard assemblages. Therefore, habitat segregation and different hunting strategies may likely occur among these species and allow for species coexistence in these areas.

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The Small Spotted-Lizard Mesalina guttulata is recorded for the first time from Um Elsheikh island at Dongonab Bay in the Red Sea State, Sudan

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Report about an observation of juvenile Podarcis muralis as potential prey of Euscorpius sp.

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Se describe un comportamiento previamente no observado en el lagarto de Boettger (Gallotia caesaris). Varios ejemplares de la subespecie G. caesaris caesaris se subieron al dorso de un águila pescadora (Pandion haliaetus) y comieron allí moscas parásitas (Diptera, Hippoboscidae) que estaban sobre las plumas; el águila pescadora se hallaba en un nido situado en la costa del mar de las Calmas en la isla de El Hierro. Este comportamiento es otro caso de mutualismo (simbiosis de limpieza) ya que puede contribuir a mejorar la salud de las águilas pescadoras y, por otra parte, es un suplemento alimenticio para los lagartos.

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This study reports on the seasonal, sex, and age differences in the diet composition of a population of the lacertid lizard Podarcis milensis inhabiting an arid sand dune on Milos Island (Aegean Archipelago, Greece). Stomach contents of 191 animals were analyzed and compared with prey availability data. The most important prey types were Hemiptera, Coleoptera (other than Tenebrionidae), spiders, and ants. Other prey items included plant material and insect larvae, both constantly consumed throughout the year. Differences in the taxonomic composition of the diet were found between males and females and between juveniles and all other classes. The greatest similarity of diet composition between the sexes and ages examined was during summer. The foraging patterns observed are discussed within the context of the specific study system: an insular, low productivity, sand dune ecosystem.

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The Erhard’s wall lizard Podarcis erhardii (Bedriaga, 1886) was first recorded on the tiny rocky islet of Spanopoula, near Kea (Aegean Archipelago, Greece), in 1980. Since then, there has been no other published reference to confirm the species’ presence or to estimate its population status. Here, we report on a herpetological survey we carried out on Spanopoula 44 years later, which add ed a third species (Mediodactylus kotschyi) to the islet’s herpetofauna list. During our visit, we collected body-size measurements and tissue samples for the molecular identification of the Podarcis lizards inhabiting the islet. We found a thriving population of medium-sized wall lizards, belonging to the mainland form, P. erhardii livadiacus (Werner, 1902). As this subspecies is not present in adjacent Kea and nearby islands, our finding supports a human-mediated dispersal scenario.

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Invasive species have been recognised as an important hazard to native communities. Amongst the mitigation measures that have been proposed to confront biological invasions, eradication projects are certainly the most drastic. In this short communication, a successful eradication project against a recently established population of the Italian wall lizard (Podarcis siculus) in Athens, Greece, is reported. To this aim, the Hellenic Herpetological Society received unforeseen aid from stray cats and, possibly, from the Οcellated skink (Chalcides ocellatus) and vegetation growth. Within three years, the initial thriving P. siculus population has shrunk to very few individuals.

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The reproductive strategy of Podarcis milensis exhibits some peculiarities when compared with other congeners. Males and females attain sexual maturity at a min- imum body size of 47 and 42 mm SVL, respectively, both at an age of about one year. Podarcis milensis has a ver y small clutch size, with a mean of 1.73 and a range of 1–3 eggs, and produces multiple clutches annually. Both sexes exhibit a pro- longed reproductive period extending from Januar y to August.

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Field body temperatures (Tbs), activity cycles, and preferred body temperatures maintained in a laboratory thermogradient (Tsel) were studied for Podarcis milensis, a small, endemic, lacertid lizard occurring in Milos Archipelago, Greece. P. milensis is active all year round; overall maximum activity level is recorded in spring, and minimum activity in winter. Daily activity patterns range from unimodal (winter) to strongly bimodal (summer). Body temperature of adults of the examined population (n = 188) averages 31.3 °C (range 21.5-38.4 °C, SD 3.27 °C); mean monthly Tbs are grouped together into `seasons`. The species actively thermoregulates, and effectiveness of thermoregulation for the month of August is high, 0.95. The thermoregulatory behavior, microhabitat utilization, and activity cycle of this population are all discussed in the specific context of our study system: the harsh thermal environment of an insular sand dune.

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Die vorliegende Studie behandelt die Nahrungszusammensetzung dreier nichtsympatrischer Eidechsenarten von den Ägäischen Inseln, Griechenland. Der Mageninhalt von 157 Exemplaren von Podarcis milensis (62), Podarcis gaigeae (50) und Podarcis erhardii (45) wurde auf Beuterückstände untersucht. Alle Tiere kamen aus Museumssammlungen und waren im Sommer gefunden worden. In dieser Jahreszeit nehmen Podarcis milensis und Podarcis gaigeae ähnliche Nahrung auf, hauptsächlich Ameisen, Coleoptera und Insektenlarven, während Podarcis erhardii Coleoptera und Orthoptera erbeutet. Die Ergebnisse werden im Zusammenhang mit der verfügbaren Beute diskutiert.

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The spatial organization of a population of the endemic lacertid Podarcis milensis was studied from May to October in a sandy, back-dune ecosystem on Milos island (Aegean Archipelago, Greece). Male/female home range ratio was l.67.Each male overlapped with up to 6 females, while each female with up to 5 female neighbours closely spaced. Female home ranges were overiapped extensively by male home ranges, up to 100% of their range. Both males and females maintained high fidelity to the same home ranges from season to season. Our data indicate male territorial behavior in this population. Behavioural observations in the field support the above. Males defended territories from intruders even during October. Results are discussed within the context of the specific study system

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Algyroides moreoticus, Lacerta agilis, Lacerta graeca, Lacerta oxycephala, Lacerta trilineata, Lacerta viridis, Podarcis melisellensis fiumana, Podarcis muralis albanica, Podarcis peloponnesiaca, Podarcis sicula campestris, Podarcis taurica ionica, Podarcis taurica taurica.

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Amphibians and reptiles have interacted with humans for millennia. However, humans interact with amphibian and reptile species in different manners, which depend on their culture and traditions. This study was designed to better understand the interactions between amphibian and reptile species and their usage among the native peoples in the vicinity of the Jhelum and Chenab rivers, Pakistan. Information was collected through semi-structured interviews and questionnaires, and was analyzed by using different indices, including the frequency of citation, corrected fidelity level, fidelity level, relative importance level, and informant major ailment. Two amphibians and twenty-six reptile species were used in therapeutic medicine in the study area. Based on the cultural analysis, we found that Naja naja (black cobra) was highly cited across all cultural groups. A 100% Fidelity Level was calculated for the following species: Naja naja (eye infection), Varanus bengalensis (joint pain), Eurylepis taeniolatus (cataract), and Acanthodactylus cantoris (cancer). We found five endangered species in the study area, i.e., Aspideretes gangeticus, A. hurum, Chitra indica, Varanus flavescens, and Geoclemys hamiltonii, that were used to cure joint pain, muscle stretching and pain, backbone pain, paralysis, and psoriasis, respectively. Likewise, Lissemys punctata andersoni, a vulnerable species as labelled by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, was extensively used for the treatment of joint pain, body pain, paralysis, and arthritis in the study area. In terms of conservation, it is critical to protect the highly vulnerable and endangered species that are being used in therapeutic medicines. Our findings may be helpful for the conservation of amphibian and reptile species by helping to make an effective plan to prevent their extinction. The main threats to the diversity of amphibian and reptile species in the area are hunting, trading, and cultural use. These threats could potentially lead to the extinction of these species. Therefore, with the involvement of concerned authorities, e.g., local stakeholders, the Ministry of Climate Change, provincial wildlife departments, academia, and conservation managers, immediate conservation measures should be taken for the protection and sustainable utilization of medicinal species.

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An annotated list of amphibian and reptile species of the Russian Far East is presented with due account of modern data on the taxa systematics. 13 Amphibian species and 27 reptile ones have been reliably registered by now, including several random sea species.

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The paper reports on the distribution and ecology of amphibians and reptiles in the south of the Russian Far East, including previously unstudied areas within Khabarovsk Kray, Primorskiy Kray, and Yevreyskaya Autonomous Oblast’ (209 localities in total) studied in 1998 – 2004.

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The critical state of the Gallotia bravoana species demands the use of hardware that helps its conservation. The analysis of its diet provides valuable information that can be used for this purpose, It is already improving the breeding program in captivity, fine-tuning the process of selection of future areas for releasing populations or helping in the search for new populations in other points of the island and allowing for an approach to the process of growth in freedom and, in short, its demography. The study of the diet of this species has been carried out through a micro-histological analysis of fecal samples. To achieve satisfactory identification a reference collection of epidermal tissues of stems, sheets, flowers (pollen) and fruits (seeds) has been used. The results clarify that it is a herbivorous animal in which very few species have significant importance. They also consume animal prey, and display a trophic plasticity that is justified by the scarcity of resources.

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O montado, sistema agro-silvo-pastoril de extrema importância para várias espécies de répteis, foi moldado pela ação humana desde tempos ancestrais e a manutenção das suas características seminaturais depende diretamente da continuação da gestão tradicional. A presente investigação teve como principal objetivo a determinação do impacto da gestão do montado, principalmente do pastoreio, no uso do habitat pelas lagartixas Psammodromus algirus, Psammodromus occidentalis e Podarcis virescens. Os resultados atingidos, por meio da realização de testes de hipóteses, apontam para a ausência de impacto dos vários níveis de intensidade de pastoreio no número de indivíduos encontrado em cada cerca, embora, aparentemente, haja uma alteração do comportamento e uso do micro-habitat pelas lagartixas quando expostas às diferentes intensidades. Estas lagartixas mostraram selecionar micro-habitats com uma estrutura simples, sendo que as diferenças entre as espécies se encontram no uso que estas fazem dos elementos que o constituem; Abstract: Habitat Use by Lizards in Agrosilvopastoral Systems of Montado The montado is an extremely important agrosilvopastoral system to several species of reptiles. It has been moulded by the human activity since the primordial times and its characteristics rely directly on the continuity of the traditional ways of management. The present research`s objective has been the measure of the impact inflicted by the management applied on the montado upon the use of the habitat by the species of lizards Psammodromus algirus, Psammodromus occidentalis and Podarcis virescens. The results suggests that there is no impact on the population of the species studied due to the intensity of the grazing, although there has been noticed a change in the behaviour and usage of the micro-habitat by them, when exposed to the different intensity levels. The lizards seem to prefer simple structured micro-habitats being the main difference between the species in the usage that they give to its physical elements.

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Basrah province is situated at the extreme south of Iraq, it has an interesting reptile fauna (Squamata and Serpentes) and represents a land bridge between three different zoogeographical regions ( Oriental, Palaearctic and Ethiopian). This situation gave Basrah province a topographic specific opportunity for raising its own faunal diversity including reptiles; in this study Basrah province was divided into four main zones: the cities and orchards, marshes and wetlands (sabkha), the true dessert, the seashore and Shat Al-Arab. Forty nine reptile species were recorded including snakes, sea and fresh water turtles, and Lizards; brief notes and descriptions for the rare and important species were provided and supported by Plates.

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This study includes a list of reptiles collected from Rumaila desert, south of Iraq, with a redescription of snake Eryx jayakary were given.

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The present study is a review of the 1976 publication by professor A.D. NIAZI, director of the Natural History Museum of Bagdad, on the Lacertini of Iraq, including additional materials from Irqi collections. Twenty-two individuals of five taxa of this group originating from the territory under study were indentified in Iraqi collections: Lacerta cf. strigata EICHWALD, 1831 which had been removed from the list of Iraqi lacertids by many authors, L. media media LANTZ & CYRÉN, 1920, Timon kurdistanicus (SUCHOW, 1936) and two subspecies of Apathya cappadocica (WERNER, 1902). A key for identification and a map of the records are also presented.

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Interactions between the environment and internal regulation drive the biophysiological dynamics of lizards. Although diurnal lizards are usually heliothermic, they can sometimes be active in the absence of sunlight. Here, we report, for the first time, a case of nocturnal behavior (aided by the artificial light) in the spiny-tailed lizard - Darevskia rudis (Bedriaga, 1886) – a species that normally exhibits diurnal activity.

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In this study, 29 reptile and amphibian species were recorded in 25 diff erent localities in the Sultan Mountains. Of these, 5 were anurans, 1 was a tortoise, 1 was a turtle, 11 were lizards, and 11 were snakes. A chorotype classifi cation of the species recorded in the Sultan Mountains is also given.

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In a translocation experiment in 1971, five pairs of Italian wall lizards (Podarcis siculus) were transferred from the islet of Pod Kopište to the islet of Pod Mrčaru. 36 years later, it was found that the native species of Dalmatian wall lizard Podarcis melisellensis on the islet of Pod Mrčaru was completely replaced through competition of the introduced P. siculus. Studies of the original and newly formed populations of P. siculus on the islets Pod Kopište and Pod Mrčaru revealed morphological, physiological and behavioral differences between the two populations. Previous studies of parental generation have shown higher aggressivity of adults from the islet Pod Kopište. The aim of this thesis was to determine whether there are differences in exploratory behavior, activity and neophobia between juvenile individuals of the F1 generation. Juvenile individuals are divided into four groups according to the origin of their parents. All individuals participated in three open field tests: habituation test, activity test and neophobia test towards a novel object. The habituation test examines the exploratory behavior of an individual in an unfamiliar environment. The activity test monitors the activity of individuals in a known environment. The neophobia test measured fear values towards a novel, unknown object. According to the obtained results, pure lines of juvenile individuals do not differ from each other in behavior. Hybrids are less prone to exploratory behavior and more neophobic.

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We describe two new species of the lacertid genus Ophisops based on a series of 19 specimens from semi-arid habitats in the states of Gujarat and Rajasthan in northwestern India, provide a description of Ophisops microlepis sensu stricto, and a key to Indian Ophisops. Ophisops pushkarensis sp. nov. and Ophisops kutchensis sp. nov. are allied to Ophisops microlepis and can be diagnosed from all other Indian Ophisops by the fusion of the lower and upper eyelids, their large body size (snout to vent length > 50 mm), and ≥ 50 scales around midbody. They differ from O. microlepis and each other in the number of scales around midbody, the number of dorsal scales, subtle colour pattern differences, as well as uncorrected mitochondrial sequence divergence (6–9%). These are some of the only known endemic reptiles in these semi-arid landscapes and indicate that many other such habitats may harbour endemic biodiversity.

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Aim India is dominated by tropical grassy biomes (TGBs), traditionally considered seres or degraded forest, with low diversity relative to the restricted, ancestral wet zone. It is unclear if Indian grasslands and other open habitats are anthropogenically derived or native, old-growth habitats; without a clear timescale of grassland evolution. One way to understand grassland evolution is to study the diversification in taxa restricted to open habitats. We use a dated phylogeny of Ophisops to address questions related to the origin, diversification and inter-relationships of Indian and Saharo-Arabian Ophisops, and ultimately the origin of Indian grasslands and open habitats. Location The Indian subcontinent; the Saharo-Arabian Realm. Methods We generated up to 2736 base pairs of aligned sequence data (one mitochondrial, two nuclear genes) for Indian lacertids and reconstructed phylogenetic relationships using maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference. We use a fossil-calibrated timetree, diversification analyses and ancestral area reconstructions to test the hypotheses of origin and relationships with Saharo-Arabian Ophisops. Results Ophisops is strongly supported as monophyletic, with a basal split into a large-bodied (LBC) and small-bodied clade (SBC). The Saharo-Arabian species are nested within the Indian species in the LBC. Species diversity in Indian Ophisops is grossly underestimated, with 26–47 candidate species. Ophisops began diversifying in the late Oligocene with significant rate shifts in the late Miocene-Pliocene and Pleistocene within the SBC. Main conclusions Our results are consistent with an ancient origin of grassland taxa and TGBs in India. Ophisops is a dramatic example of overlooked cryptic diversity outside forests, with ~30 species where five were known. Ophisops dispersed into India from the Saharo-Arabian Realm in the Oligocene with a back dispersal in the Middle Miocene, a novel biogeographical pattern. Diversification in the SBC of Ophisops increased 8-fold during the global C4 grassland expansion. Indian TGBs are old-growth ecosystems that need urgent conservation attention.

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Starting from the knowledge that in the reproductive period the Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP) is widely distributed in Podarcis sicula testis, we studied VIP expression and the localization of the neuropeptide and its receptors in the testis of the Italian wall lizard P. sicula in the other phases of its reproductive cycle (summer stasis, autumnal resumption, winter stasis, spring resumption). By Real Time-PCR, we demonstrated that testicular VIP mRNA levels change during the reproductive cycle, showing a cyclic trend with two peaks, one in mid-autumnal resumption and the other in the reproductive period. By in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry, we demonstrated that both VIP mRNA and protein were widely distributed in the testis in almost all the phases of the cycle, except in the early autumnal resumption. As regards the receptors, the VPAC1R was localized mainly in Leydig cells, while the VPAC2R showed the same distribution of VIP. Our results demonstrate that, differently from mammals, where VIP is present only in nerve fibres innerving the testis, an endotesticular synthesis takes place in the lizard and the VIP synthesis changes throughout the reproductive cycle. Moreover, the VIP/VPAC receptor system distribution observed in germ and somatic cells in various phases of the cycle, and particularly in the autumnal resumption and the reproductive period, strongly suggests its involvement in both spermatogenesis and steroidogenesis. Finally, the wider distribution of VIP in lizards with respect to mammals leads us to hypothesize that during the evolution the synthesis sites have been transferred from the testis to other districts, such as the brain.

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Using molecular, biochemical, and cytological tools, we studied the nucleotide and the deduced amino acid sequence of PHI/VIP and the distribution of VIP/VPAC receptor system in the testis of the Italian wall lizard Podarcis sicula to evaluate the involvement of such a neuropeptide in the spermatogenesis control. We demonstrated that (1) Podarcis sicula VIP had a high identity with other vertebrate VIP sequences, (2) differently from mammals, VIP was synthesized directly in the testis, and (3) VIP and its receptor VPAC2 were widely distributed in germ and somatic cells, while the VPAC1R had a distribution limited to Leydig cells. Our results demonstrated that in Podarcis sicula the VIP sequence is highly preserved and that this neuropeptide is involved in lizard spermatogenesis and steroidogenesis.

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The aim of the present work was to study the possible role of adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) 38 in the testicular intracellular mechanism regulating steroidogenesis of crested newt, Triturus carnifex. Gonads were incubated in vitro with PACAP 38 and prostaglandin (PG) E(2) alone or with inhibitors of cyclooxygenase (COX), adenylate cyclase (AC), and phospholipase C (PLC) for 30 min and 60 min. PGE(2), PGF(2 alpha), testosterone, and estradiol-17 beta were measured in the culture medium; aromatase (AR) activity and cAMP were assessed in the tissue. PACAP 38 increased PGE(2) (30 min and 60 min), estradiol-17 beta (60 min), cAMP (60 min), and AR (60 min) but decreased testosterone (60 min). PGE(2) increased estradiol-17 beta, cAMP, and AR and decreased testosterone at 30 and 60 min.PLC inhibitor counteracted the effects of PACAP 38, while AC inhibitor counteracted these effects except for PGE(2) increase. AC inhibitor counteracted the effects of PGE(2), while PLC did not. COX inhibitor decreased PGF(2 alpha) (30 min and 60 min), PGE(2) (30 min and 60 min), estradiol-17 beta (60 min), cAMP (60 min), and AR (60 min), but increased testosterone (60 min). These in vitro results suggest that, in newt testis, PACAP 38 acts on PLC, inducing the increase of PGE(2) which, in turn, acting on AC, increases AR activity with the consequent estradiol-17 beta increase and testosterone decrease.

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Las restricciones térmicas pueden limitar la fisiología y el comportamiento de los ectotermos debido a la dependencia térmica de sus funciones metabólicas. Los animales termorreguladores han desarrollado mecanismos de ajuste, tanto comportamentales como fisiológicos, que permiten mantener sus temperaturas corporales en el rango de temperaturas óptimas para la mayoría de las funciones fisiológicas. Además, ciertos rasgos morfológicos pueden favorecer el intercambio de energía con el ambiente así, un menor tamaño corporal aumenta las tasas de calentamiento, del mismo modo que los colores oscuros, por su mayor capacidad de captación de la radiación. En esta tesis, se analiza la termorregulación globalmente, manejando varias especies de saurios para dilucidar los mecanismos que optimizan el proceso de termorregulación en los ambientes más desfavorables. Utilizando como modelo una especie de alta montaña, Iberolacerta cyreni, se estudian los mecanismos de termorregulación empleados en ambientes óptimos y sub-óptimos, explorando el papel del tamaño corporal como rasgo morfológico determinante en la biología térmica. En segundo lugar, se establece el efecto de la temperatura sobre el crecimiento juvenil temprano, rasgo relevante por su influencia sobre el tamaño corporal en la madurez, comparando dos poblaciones de ambientes térmicos contrastados en Iberolacerta monticola. El estudio del rol del melanismo en la biología térmica se aborda desde dos perspectivas. Primero, utilizando como modelo la especie I. monticola, se comparan los patrones de coloración en dos poblaciones de los extremos de su distribución altitudinal, analizando simultáneamente las diferencias locales en la cantidad de melanina y comparando los valores actuales con los de especímenes preservados recolectados en las mismas poblaciones en 1983-1984, discutiendo los posibles efectos del cambio climático. Además, se determina el papel del melanismo sobre las tasas de calentamiento bajo distintas condiciones térmicas. Por último, se midió la variación en la reflectancia y el tamaño corporal, así como en respuesta térmica en la especie Cordylus cordylus, endémica de Sudáfrica. Analizando los resultados bajo la hipótesis del melanismo térmico, se evalúa la hipótesis de la co-adaptación entre la fisiología térmica, el tamaño corporal y el melanismo, valorando la influencia de otros factores de selección, como la cripsis o la disponibilidad de refugios adecuados. Nuestros resultados indican que I. cyreni es una especie termorreguladora activa bastante precisa pese a las limitaciones de las temperaturas disponibles en el campo, mostrando temperaturas preferidas inferiores a la mayoría de lacértidos. El mantenimiento de la temperatura corporal se realiza fundamentalmente mediante ajustes comportamentales, incluso en ambientes sub-óptimos con elevados costes asociados. Por otro lado, en I. monticola, existen diferencias locales en el crecimiento temprano en masa independientes del ambiente térmico, mientras que la norma de reacción del crecimiento en longitud mostró patrones opuestos entre poblaciones. Además, se encontraron evidencias de crecimiento compensatorio, con patrones opuestos en la interacción entre la población y el ambiente térmico entre las poblaciones. El grado de melanismo en I. monticola varía dependiendo de la población (altitud), el sexo y el periodo temporal (1983-1984 vs 2011-2012), con lagartijas más oscuras a mayor altitud, machos más oscuros que hembras, y mayor dimorfismo sexual en la población de montaña en la muestra actual (2011-2012). Este patrón complejo de variación sugiere la existencia de diferentes procesos y mecanismos causales que actúan sobre la evolución de la coloración. Por último, los resultados muestran que en C. cordylus, el tamaño corporal, el melanismo y las adaptaciones térmicas podrían estar co-adaptadas, aunque otros factores, como la selección sexual y la cripsis podrían intervenir en la variación del melanismo entre poblaciones.

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Thermal constraints may limit the physiology and behaviour of ectotherms because of the high thermal dependence of metabolic functions. The adaptive mechanisms of thermoregulation and the cost of confronting thermal constraints were studied in the Cyren’s Rock Lizard (Iberolacerta cyreni (Muller and Hellmich, 1937)), a lacertid lizard endemic to mountain areas of central Spain. Semicontinuous monitoring of body temperature (Tb) in the laboratory indicated that the preferred temperature range for this population (Tpref) was lower than those found for most lacertid lizards, and field body temperatures of active animals in summer were even lower than Tpref. Overall these results, together with distribution of field operative temperatures (Te), indicate that I. cyreni is an active and relatively accurate thermoregulator, although limited by thermal constraints in their habitat. Laboratory experiments in contrasting thermal environments showed that even under thermally restricted conditions, lizards achieved their Tpref by modifying their thermoregulatory behaviour, principally through changes in space use, basking time, and body posture. However, these behavioural adjustments to reach the Tpref have associated costs, and lizards spent 80% of their time in thermoregulation when tested under low radiation conditions, which in the wild would limit the scope for other activities and eventually increase predation risk. Our results suggest that thermoregulatory behaviour may play an important role in coping with global climate change, hence predictions of the effects of climate warming on lizards inhabiting cold habitats should take into account the buffering role of behavioural thermoregulation.

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The Madeira wall lizard, Teira dugesii selvagensis, is a partially herbivorous species that also predates Cory shearwater chicks, having an impact of 5% on the reproductive success of this seabird at the island of Selvagem Grande. This study aims to characterize and compare the population structure of Madeira wall lizards, as well as its role in the trophic web of various areas of Selvagem Grande. These areas were designated according to the type of relief, size of seabird colonies and vegetation cover, in two different Cory shearwater nesting seasons (egg incubation and offspring feeding period). The abundance of lizards in different areas and in both seasons was estimated using capture-mark-recapture. Lizard droppings were also collected, to identify contents. Samples of species belonging to the Selvagem Grande trophic chain were collected for isotopic analysis. Isotopic results were analyzed using SIAR and SIBER packages. Both the highest abundance of lizards and the highest vegetation cover were found in areas with small seabirds colonies. In spite of that, the proportion of lizard immatures was higher on the South/Southwest facing cliffs, where the largest seabird colonies are located. Herbivory increases with lizard size, and there was a high percentage of vegetable contents (about 65%) in the droppings. The isotopic basis of the trophic chain varied significantly among areas and is probably influenced by island topography and seabird inputs. Comparing signatures between geckos and lizards of the island, allowed the characterization of niches occupied by each species, being the differences justified by their diets. In areas with larger seabird colonies, seabirds or nutrient inputs brought by them were extremely important for the diet of T.d. selvagensis. The lizards with smaller differences in their isotopic niche between seasons were found in the areas with most seabirds, while the highest isotopic niche differences occured where resources were fewer. Isotopic results validate the dropping analysis, indicating consumption of seabirds during the bird offspring feeding period. Results obtained in this study suggest that the pressure of lizards on seabirds colonies is variable along the island. In contrast to what was expected, in areas with more vegetation there was a reduced impact on seabirds, despite higher abundances of lizards. Lizard monitorization should be continued to assess population trends as vegetation recovers after the eradication of rabbit and domestic mouse.

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Long-term maintenance of colour polymorphisms often depends on the interplay of multiple selective forces. In the common wall lizard (Podarcis muralis), up to three pure and two mosaic ventral colour morphs co-exist across most of its range. Available evidence suggests that colour morphs in this species are maintained through the interaction between sexual and environment-dependent selection. In particular, colour-assortative pairing has been recorded, suggesting some degree of assortative mating. Here, we combined reduced-representation sequencing (ddRADseq) and fine-scale distribution data to explore the effects of assortative pairing on the common wall lizard. Overall, our results do not support any population structure (FST = 0 and K = 1) nor a significant effect of colour morph or geographic location on genomic differentiation. Therefore, we argue that assortative pairing may not fully translate into assortative mating and genomic differentiation between colour morphs and discuss possible explanations. Nonetheless, we find potential support for an elevated population size and/or source-sink dynamics and debate the potential contribution of other forms of selection to the maintenance of colour polymorphisms in lacertids.

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Animal coloration is often shaped by a myriad of factors that lead to differences in colour through changes in the chromatophores. Depending on how this variation is partitioned, coloration is often categorized as continuous or polymorphic. However, the boundaries between these two categories are not always clear. Here, we investigated whether the ventral coloration of the Madeiran wall lizard (Teira dugesii) varies continu- ously or corresponds to discrete colour morphs, via by-eye colour classification and visual modelling. By combining these two approaches, we show that T. dugesii coloration varies continuously and that colour classifications based on anthropomorphic approaches alone are ill suited to describe animal coloration. We also tested the influence of size, body condition, and sex as possible factors that might explain differences in T. dugesii coloration. We found that body condition, and especially size and sex, explain a great proportion of the variability observed in this spe- cies. These differences point to an effect of ontogeny, which might play a major role in colour development owing to the longevity of this species. Moreover, the sexual dichromatism that this species shows is indicative of an effect of sexual selection on coloration, perhaps explained by dif- ferences in circulating hormones.

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Color polymorphisms have become a major topic in evolutionary biology and substantial efforts have been devoted to the understanding of the mechanisms responsible for originating such colorful systems. Within-morph continuous variation, on the other hand, has been neglected in most of the studies. Here, we combine spectrophotometric/ visual modeling and genetic data to study the mechanisms promoting continuous variation within categorical color morphs of Podarcis muralis. Our results suggest that intra-morph variability in the pterin-based orange morph is greater compared to white and yellow morphs. We also show that continuous variation within the orange morph is partially discriminable by conspecifics. Genotyping results indicate that allelic variants at the BCO2 locus (responsible for deposition of yellow carotenoids) contribute to generate continuous variation in orange individuals. However, other intrinsic and/or extrinsic mechanisms, such as body size, might be involved, opening a new avenue for future research on the drivers of continuous variation within-morphs.

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The maintenance of polymorphisms often depends on multiple selective forces, but less is known on the role of stochastic or historical processes in maintaining variation. The common wall lizard (Podarcis muralis) is a colour polymorphic species in which local colour morph frequencies are thought to be modulated by natural and sexual se- lection. Here, we used genome-wide single-nucleotide polymorphism data to investi- gate the relationships between morph composition and population biogeography at a regional scale, by comparing morph composition with patterns of genetic variation of 54 populations sampled across the Pyrenees. We found that genetic divergence was explained by geographic distance but not by environmental features. Differences in morph composition were associated with genetic and environmental differentiation, as well as differences in sex ratio. Thus, variation in colour morph frequencies could have arisen via historical events and/or differences in the permeability to gene flow, possibly shaped by the complex topography and environment. In agreement with this hypothesis, colour morph diversity was positively correlated with genetic diversity and rates of gene flow and inversely correlated with the likelihood of the occurrence of bottlenecks. Concurrently, we did not find conclusive evidence for selection in the two colour loci. As an illustration of these effects, we observed that populations with higher proportions of the rarer yellow and yellow-orange morphs had higher genetic diversity. Our results suggest that processes involving a decay in overall genetic di- versity, such as reduced gene flow and/or bottleneck events have an important role in shaping population-specific morph composition via non-selective processes.

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Two species of Lacerta genus are found in Northwest of Iran: Lacerta media and Lacerta strigata. Lacerta media has wide distribution range and is an important lizard fauna element in agro- ecosystems and river closed humid areas. The aim of this study was to provide reasons for high population size of this species in agro ecosystems. So, this study was performed in the farming areas in Meshkinshar, Ardabil province of Iran from 2003 to 2006. Based on extensive field research, it has been mainly found that Lacerta media is the most abundant reptile species in mentioned habitats and it just inhabits areas that are much closed to water. Our results also showed, animal is hidden by dense grass vegetation cover especially male that has green color. They use old hallows of mice and other small vertebrates for hiding and egg lying. In spring they are seen on cultivated filed boundaries on stones on sunny days. As specific result, they are found in apple orchards more abundant than other cultivated fields. It seems that permanent food accessibility (insects) and fewer predators are most reasons. Finally, Lacerta media is interesting species to study from a conservational point of view because of its unusual frequency of occurrence as parallel with human activities.

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Timon, a small genus of lacertid lizards, includes four species distributed in two separate ranges in the western and eastern part of the Mediterranean Basin. Phylogenetic relationships between the two groups have not been resolved, and the taxonomic situation of the two subspecies of the eastern representative of the genus, Timon princeps, is not clear. To address these questions, partial DNA sequences of two nuclear (β-fibrinogen intron 7 and C-mos) and three mitochondrial (cytochrome b, 12S rRNA and 16S rRNA) genes were analyzed. Based on the high genetic distance between the two subspecies of T. princeps we promote their taxonomic status to full species, Timon princeps and Timon kurdistanicus. Divergence time estimates based on other lacertid species suggest that the separation of the green (Lacerta) and ocellated (Timon) lizards took place around 12 My ago, and that the Eastern group underwent speciation around 4-5 my ago, perhaps associated with the uplifting of the Zagros mountains. As expected given this ancient divergence and complex paleogeography, considerable levels of genetic diversity are recovered within both taxa, with geographically close individuals showing very divergent haplotypes.

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A variety of different methods are available for investigating the effects of past climate fluctuation on biota. Among them, molecular phylogeography and species distribution modeling approaches have been shown to be especially useful tools to trace past climate induced modifications of species’ geographic distributions. The results of both analytical approaches are here combined to better understand the influences of past climate changes on the fragmented distribution pattern of the lizard genus Iranolacerta that currently occurs in the northwest and central Zagros Mountains of Iran. While Iranolacerta zagrosica is restricted to few localities and cannot be modeled, the potential distribution of Iranolacerta brandtii suggested a large region of unfavorable habitat between northwest and the central Zagros Mountains populations. From the phylogenetic perspective, both species display deep genetic separation likely predating the Pleistocene. However, limited genetic diversity across this divided range of I. brandtii implies that the current separation is recent. Deeper genetic divergences were, nevertheless, uncovered within the northwest population. Since no recent geological events explain these results, the most likely explanation for such a distribution pattern is due to past climate fluctuations. Both sources of evidence suggest that during the early Holocene the northwest and Zagros populations of I. brandtii were connected, and the current pattern was shaped with their disconnection in the early Holocene. Further studies may identify potential glacial refugia for other species in this biodiverse region.

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Aim The ocellated lizards of the genus Timon, comprising six species that are distributed across continental Asia, Europe and Africa, offer an interesting model to study the evolution of ecological niches through comparative phyloclimatic analysis. Our study provides insights into the evolutionary history of the ocellated lizards and helps to understand the role of climatic niche evolution during the speciation process. Location Eastern and western margins of the Mediterranean basin. Methods A dated molecular phylogeny was estimated based on three mitochondrial and two nuclear genes. Using multivariate statistics, species distribution models were developed to characterize the Grinnellian niches of all species. Subsequently, ancestral environmental niche occupancy of each taxon was reconstructed using niche occupancy profiles. Niche divergence among species was quantified by computing multivariate niche overlaps via twodimensional and n-dimensional approaches. Results Phylogenetic analysis supports that the ancestor of Timon diverged into the eastern and western groups following multiple vicariance events that shaped the current distribution pattern of Palaearctic lizards. High complexity in the ecological niche evolution between the Mediterranean and non-Mediterranean climatic regions was detected. The generally low niche divergence among members of the eastern group and the remarkable climatic divergence within the western group highlight an important role of temperature seasonality in a Mediterranean and Atlantic climate context. The results also suggest niche conservatism in terms of microhabitats described by vegetation cover. Main conclusions The ocellated lizards provide an interesting example of a vertebrate radiation where niche shift (with or without vicariance) and niche conservatism alternate in different niche axes shaping current biogeographical patterns.

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Aim Diversification and rapid radiation are well documented in lacertid lizards. Niche conservation is frequently observed among related taxa, whereby niches will not change much during speciation events. Here, we investigate the relationship between environmental niche divergence and phylogenetic relatedness in a widespread group of green lizards, the Lacerta trilineata group. Location Eastern Mediterranean, Anatolia and adjacent regions. Methods A dated phylogeny based on three mitochondrial genes was contextualized using species distribution models of all genetically identified lineages in the Lacerta trilineata group. Based on this analysis, ancestral climatic niche occupancy was reconstructed using niche occupancy profiles. Niche divergence among lineages was quantified by computing multivariate niche overlaps. Results All taxa are associated with humid areas, but there is extensive variation in their climatic niche breadths and positions, which accord with the main phylogenetic split in the group. Our results suggest divergent niche evolution within subclades and convergent evolution among clades, which implies only a limited degree of niche conservatism regarding annual variations in temperature and precipitation. In contrast, niche axes – mainly reflecting precipitation patterns of the coldest quarter – show a greater difference among clades than within clades, and therefore a higher degree of niche conservatism. Main conclusions Based on estimated divergence times between taxa and geological events in Anatolia, our results can be explained by fragmentation of the range of a hypothetical ancestral species, resulting in different adaptations of subclades either to humid continental climates or to more Mediterranean climates. Our study highlights deviations from classical niche conservatism theory due to significant niche shifts among sister taxa.

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Diversification and rapid radiation are well documented in lacertid lizards. Niche conservatism is frequently observed among related taxa, whereby ecological niches remain mostly stable during speciation events. Here, we investigate the relationship between environmental niche divergence and phylogenetic relatedness in a widespread group of green lizards, the Lacerta trilineata group. A dated phylogeny based on three mitochondrial genes was contextualized using species distribution models of all genetically identified lineages in the Lacerta trilineata group. Based on this analysis, ancestral climatic niche occupancy was reconstructed using niche occupancy profiles. Niche divergence among lineages was quantified by computing multivariate niche overlaps. All taxa are associated with humid areas, but there is extensive variation in their climatic niche breadths and positions, which accord with the main phylogenetic split in the group. Our results suggest divergent niche evolution within subclades and convergent evolution among clades, which implies only a limited degree of niche conservatism regarding annual variations in temperature and precipitation. In contrast, niche axes – mainly reflecting precipitation patterns of the coldest quarter – show a greater difference among clades than within clades, and therefore a higher degree of niche conservatism. Based on estimated divergence times between taxa and geological events in Anatolia, our results can be explained by fragmentation of the range of a hypothetical ancestral species, resulting in different adaptations of subclades either to humid continental climates or to more Mediterranean climates. Our study highlights deviations from classical niche conservatism theory due to significant niche shifts among sister taxa.

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While traditionally species recognition has been based solely on morphological differences either typological or quantitative, several newly developed methods can be used for a more objective and integrative approach on species delimitation. This may be especially relevant when dealing with cryptic species or species complexes, where high overallresemblance between species is coupled with comparatively high morphological variation within populations. Rock lizards, genus Darevskia, are such an example, as many of its members offer few diagnostic morphological features. Herein, we use a combination of genetic, morphological and ecological criteria to delimit cryptic species within two species complexes, D. chlorogaster and D. defilippii, both distributed in northern Iran. Our analyses are based on molecular information from two nuclear and two mitochondrial genes, morphological data (15 morphometric, 16 meristic and four categorical characters) and eleven newly calculated spatial environmental predictors. The phylogeny inferred for Darevskia confirmed monophyly of each species complex, with each of them comprising several highly divergent clades, especially when compared to other congeners. We identified seven candidate species within each complex, of which three and four species were supported by Bayesian species delimitation within D. chlorogaster and D. defilippii, respectively. Trained with genetically determined clades, Ecological Niche Modeling provided additional support for these cryptic species. Especially those within the D. defilippii-complex exhibit well-differentiated niches. Due to overall morphological resemblance, in a first approach PCA with mixed variables only showed the separation between the two complexes. However, MANCOVA and subsequent Discriminant Analysis performed separately for both complexes allowed for distinction of the species when sample size was large enough, namely within the D. chlorogaster-complex. In conclusion, the results support four new species, which are described herein.

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While traditionally species recognition has been based solely on morphological differences either typological or quantitative, several newly developed methods can be used for a more objective and integrative approach on species delimitation. This may be especially relevant when dealing with cryptic species or species complexes, where high overall resemblance between species is coupled with comparatively high morphological variation within populations. Rock lizards, genus Darevskia, are such an example, as many of its members offer few diagnostic morphological features. Herein, we use a combination of genetic (two nuclear and two mitochondrial loci), morphological (15 morphometric, 16 meristic and four categorical characters) and ecological (eleven newly calculated spatial environmental predictors) criteria to delimit cryptic species within two species complexes, D. chlorogaster and D. defilippii, both distributed in northern Iran. Phylogenetic analyses of the molecular data confirmed the monophyly of D. chlorogaster, while D. defilippii is paraphyletic in respect to D. steineri. However, each of the complexes comprises several highly divergent clades, especially when compared to other congeners. We identified seven candidate species within each complex, of which three and four species are supported by Bayesian species delimitation within D. chlorogaster and D. defilippii (including D. steineri), respectively. Although the species within one complex lack clear diagnostic features, they can be well separated based on morphological variables when sample size is appropriate. Ecological Niche Modelling provided additional support for the identified species and niche overlaps between them are generally low, especially in the D. defilippii complex.

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The oriental green lizards of the Lacerta trilineata group are widely distributed in Greece, Anatolia, the eastern Mediterranean, the southern Caucasus, and the Zagros mountains in Iran. We studied their phylogeography using three mitochondrial markers with comprehensive sampling from most representatives of the group. Their phylogeny and divergence times (implementing fossil-based molecular clock calibrations) were inferred using Bayesian methods, and haplotype networks were reconstructed to assess how genetic diversity and current distributional patterns were shaped. According to our phylogenetic analyses, the group constitutes a well-supported monophylum containing several distinct evolutionary lineages with high haplotype diversity. Vicariance might explain the divergences within most lineages that have accumulated by range restriction and expansion of populations as a result of Quaternary climate oscillations and glacial refugia. However, niche divergence appears to be a major force promoting speciation, and large scale distributional patterns between lineages were shaped earlier by multiple, independent dispersals out of Anatolia during the Pliocene and early Pleistocene. The results of the present study also suggest that the group is in need of a taxonomical revision because the identified lineages and genetic diversity are not congruent with the currently recognized subspecies.

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The oriental green lizards of the Lacerta trilineata group are widely distributed in Greece, Anatolia, the eastern Mediterranean, the southern Caucasus andthe Zagros mountains in Iran. We studied their phylogeography using three mitochondrial markers with comprehensive sampling from most representatives of the group. Their phylogeny and divergence times (implementing fossilbased molecular clock calibrations) were inferred using Bayesian methods, and haplotype networks were reconstructed to assess how genetic might explain the divergences within most lineages that have accumulated by range restriction and expansion of populations due to Quarternary climate oscillations and glacial refugia. However, niche divergence seems to be a major force promoting speciation and large scale distributional patterns between lineages were shaped earlier by multiple, independent dispersals out of Anatolia during the Pliocene and early Pleistocene. Our results also suggest that the group is in need of a taxonomical revision, as identified lineages and genetic diversity are not congruent with the currently recognised subspecies.

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In this study a total of 29 Eremias strauchi strauchi specimens (10 males, 16 females and three juveniles), collected from different localities in northwest of Iran were examined. The study was based on morphological features including color pattern, morphometric measurements, pholidotic characters, as well as ecological and biological observations especially habitat, reproductive biology and distribution. Habitat features and new distribution localities were documented. Egg characters of Eremias strauchi strauchi such as shape, size, number and color are reported for the first time. Also, some other new information on this species has been given.

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The Northwest of Iran, covering the three provinces of Ardabil, East Azerbaijan and West Azerbaijan, is a special area that, due to its particular geographical and climatic conditions has a rich biodiversity. The present study was conducted with the aim of studying the habitat, substrate type, feeding, conservation and distribution of lizards in this area from 2003 to now. Our results have revealed that there are 20 lizard species belonging to 13 genera and 5 families in this area. Lacertid lizards have the highest species diversity with 12 species. We also found that high ranges of habitats with a different substrate types are inhabited by lizard species. The number of species in pine regions compared with other types of area is considerably greater. The conservation status of lizards is unknown and requires further study.

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Northwestern Iran has unique geographical and climatic conditions that support a rich flora and fauna. In view of the lack of in-depth studies on the lizards of the region, an investigation was started in the northern part of Ardabil Province for an inventory of this component of the fauna and their habitats. Collections were made from October 2003 to June 2005 and 165 specimens were collected and identified. Five families, 12 genera and 15 species are represented, including Agamidae: Laudakia caucasia, Phrynocephalus persicus, Trapelus ruderatus; Lacertidae: Lacerta media media, Lacerta strigata, Lacerta brandtii, Darevskia raddei raddei, Eremias strauchi strauchi, Eremias arguta, Ophisops elegans; Scincidae: Mabuya aurata transcaucasica, Eumeces schneiderii princeps, Abelepharus bivittatus; Anguidae: Pseudopus apodus and Gekkonidae: Cyrtopodion caspium caspium. Comparing this list to the data provided by Anderson (1999), it seems that most of the lizards are being reported for the Province for the first time. The families Gekkonidae and Anguidae are newly recorded, and the gecko Cyrtopodion caspium is first recorded from the west and northwest of Iran. With seven species represented in the area, lacertids have the highest species diversity among the lizard families and need further study. Habitat features also have been given for all species.

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The Iranian Plateau is an area of highly complex landscape and incredibly diverse habitats, from salt deserts to temperate forests. Such a heterogeneous environment, at the crossroads of Asia, Europe, and Africa, fuels the high diversity and uniqueness of the Iranian fauna and flora. Nevertheless, our understanding of the historical processes that shaped the Iranian biodiversity remains limited. In this context, we revisit the evolutionary history of the two most widespread lizard species on the Iranian Plateau (Eremias persica and Mesalina watsonana) to explore whether these two taxa of similar ecology have been subjected to similar historical processes. To achieve that, we performed a series of phylogenetic analyses and thoroughly tested all possible alternative topologies based on available mitochondrial sequences (cytochrome b and 12S ribosomal RNA). Additionally, we estimated the number of mitochondrial clusters based on a novel single-locus delimitation method and the time of their divergence, using recently inferred evolutionary rates for lacertid species. The results indicate that the two taxa have been shaped by similar physiographic and climatic barriers since both phytogenies split into similar geographical clusters. However, E. persica has twice as long evolutionary time on the Iranian Plateau than M. watsonana. The first divergence of E. persica was estimated in the Middle Miocene (~13 Mya), at the time of the major uplift of the Zagros mountain range. The Upper Miocene tectonic rearrangement that resulted in the uplift of the Alborz mountains coincides with the original split in M. watsonana (~6.6 Mya) and several contemporaneous splits within E. persica.

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E · a · argus possesses 2u = 38 chromomes with a chromosome formula as 2n = 341 + 2m+ZW.NF=38. The C-bands of centric regions are found on all of chromosomes. Telomeric C-bands can be seen of pairs -1 chromosomes. As compared with species of close relative Eremias brenchleyi .there is a world of difference between the two state chearly :The Karyotype of E · a · argus more evolution. Meanwhile conduct a discussion on the relation of Karyotype evolution and species.

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Dalmatian Algyroides (Algyroides nigropunctatus, DUMERIL and BIBRON, 1839) is a Balkan subendemic lacertid lizard with strong dependence on the Mediterranean climatic conditions. Its distribution area is restricted to the coastal zone and the islands of the Eastern Adriatic and in the Western part of Ionian Sea. Relatively few data of Dalmatian Algyroides were known for the territory of Serbia and Montenegro. This species was found relatively deep inlands in the valleys, canyons and gorges of the Eastern Adriatic tributaries in Montenegro, as well as in Metohia (Serbia). In this paper, we present more precise insight into the distributional pattern of this species in Montenegro. Conservation status of this species in Serbia and Montenegro is also proposed.

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We studied the female reproductive cycle in a population of the oviparous lizard Acanthodactylus schreiberi syriacus from sandy beaches of Tyre, Lebanon. Females emerged from hibernation in mid-April, one month later than males. They reached sexual maturity at 57 mm snout-vent length and had smaller body sizes than males. Fertilization started in May. Among 33 gravid females, only one female showed evidence for two clutches produced in the same reproductive season whereas most of females laid one clutch per season. Mean clutch size was 2.5 ± 1.0, ranging from 1-4. We found no significant correlation between female body size and clutch size.

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The feeding biology of Ophisops elegans inhabiting Bursa was investigated. Stomach contents of 66 adult (28 ðð, 38 ¦¦) specimens collected from 3 localities were investigated by numerical analysis. Most of the foods of the Ophisops elegans specimens were insects (64.58%), the majority of which were of larval form (19.44%). Two specimens that were collected from GŸrsu were maintained in a terrarium to observe their feeding behaviors. During observations, Ophisops elegans exhibited various feeding behaviors depending on the type of prey and sometimes bit and ate pieces of its prey (legs, wings, etc.).

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There are limited studies on the Iskenderun Lizard, Acanthodactylus schreiberi Boulenger, 1878, which is known to distribute in a single area in Turkey, up to now. This study aimed to determine the distribution area, some ecological features, population size, species threatening factors and precautions to be taken for it. As a result of the field studies, it was determined that Acanthodactylus schreiberi distributes in the 7 local areas from Burnaz Coast in Erzin district to Dörtyol district, Hatay Province. Population size estimated as 13193 specimens.

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Anhand ihrer Feld- und Literaturstudien identifizierten die Autoren 36 Amphibien- und Reptilienarten, die nachweislich in der turkischen Provinz Bitlis vorkommen, wobei die Fundorte und die an ihnen angetroffenen Habitattypen angegeben werden. die durch Beobachtung festgestellten Hauptgefahrdungsursachen werden benannt. insgesamt kennt man aus dem Untersuchungsgebiet Vorkommen von vier Froschlurch-, zwei Schwanzlurch- und Schildkrötenarten sowie 15 Echsen- und 13 Schlangenarten. Hyla savignyi Audouin, 1827, Heremites vittatus (Olivier, 1804), Timon kurdistanicus (Suchow, 1936) and Eirenis thospitis Schmidtler & Lanza, 1990, stellen Erstnachweise fur die Provinz Bitlis dar.

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Endogenous stages of Isospora acanthodactyli from sandy fringed-toed lizard (Acanthodactylus schmidti) were described for the first time, in Al-Qassim, Saudi Arabia. Merogony and gamogony took place inside the host cell’s cytoplasm, in the distal part of the small intestine. Multinucleated meronts, microgamonts and macrogametes were described and measured.

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Corpuscular Constants: hemoglobin, hematocrit (packed cell volume), and red cell count; also blood glucose and total plasma protein of the lizards Acanthodactylus scutellatus and Eremias brevirostris were determined. For Acanthodactylus scutellatus the mean values are : 8.5 g/100 ml, 30.0%, 1.135 x 106/mm3, 224.6 mg/100 ml, and 4.7 g %. For Eremias brevirostris the mean values are: 9.2 g/100 ml, 30.8%, and 1.424 x 106/mm3, 217 mg/100 ml, and 4.0 g % respectively. Electrophoretic mobilities of the three protein systems, serum, plasma and hemoglobin ere similar in the two lacertid lizards, but different from those previously obtained by the same author for two agamid lizards. Electrophoretic patterns of serum and plasma proteins consist in both lizards of four fractions, albumin, ل-globulin, â-globulin and م-globulin. The ل-globulin fraction was not resolved into and ل1 and ل-2- C12 as obtained in the agamid lizards. Regarding the relative proportions of the different protein fractions and the albumin: globulin ratio. both lizards showed but little variation from each other. In all individuals of the two species examined, no fibrinogen fraction was detected in their plasma patterns. Hemoglobin of both lizards behaved as a homogeneous single fraction slightly moving towards the anode. The rate of movement was nearly the same in both lizards, but it differed from that recorded for the agamid lizards.

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The aim of this study is to show the osteological characters of the fore- and hind-limbs and the locomotion features in some reptilian species: Laudakia stellio, Hemidactylus turcicus, Acanthodatylus scutellatus, Chalcides ocellatus, Chamaeleo chamaeleon, collected from different localities from Egypt desert and Varanus griseus from lake Nassir in Egypt. In the studied species, the fore- and hind-feet show wide range of variations and modifications as they play very important roles in the process of jumping, climbing and digging which suit their habitats and their mode of life. The skeletal elements of the hand and foot exhibit several features reflecting the specialized methods of locomotion, and are related to the remarkable adaptations. Locomotion is a fundamental skill for animals. The animals of the present studies can take various forms including swimming, walking as well as some more idiosyncratic gaits such as hopping and burrowing.

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The present work provides a list of all amphibians and reptiles recorded from Iraq up to 2014. It includes 115 species (105 species of reptiles and 10 species of amphibians) dating back to 25 families (20 families of reptiles and 5 families of amphibians). Conservation status of each species was mentioned.

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The aim of the present study was to describe the sperm head differentiation in the lizardAcanthodactylus boskinus at the ultrastructural level. For this purpose, five adult male lizards were collected during April and May, 2004 from the desert at the north-east area of Riyadh city, Saudi Arabia. Testes of the lizards were processed for transmission electron microscopy. Thorough observation of the ultrastructural differentiation events of the sperm head has led to a concept of four sequential morphogenetic phases; Golgi phase, cap phase, nuclear elongation and chromatin condensation phase and maturation phase. The Golgi phase is initiated by the proliferation of Golgi complexes in the early spermatids to generate numerous microvesicles and the phase is terminated by the formation of a voluminous acrosomal vesicle. Flattening of the developed acrosomal vesicle over the anterior nuclear portion to form a cap associated with dissolution of the acrosomal granule are the features of the cap phase. Subsequent elongation of the spermatid nucleus accompanied with nuclear chromatin condensation are the features of the following phase. The final maturation phase is characterized by complete chromatin condensation and disappearance of the microtubule manchette. The general features of the differentiation process, which accord with the common criteria of other reptiles, as well as the existing differences are discussed.

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The major ultrastructural features of the sperm tail differentiation in the lizard, Acanthodactylus boskinus (A. boskinus) have been described. The initial step is the caudal migration of the centrioles followed by insertion of the proximal centriole in the nuclear fossa and extension of the distal centriole to form the microtubular axoneme. Thereafter, tail differentiation involves the development of neck region and middle, main and end pieces. The later three tail pieces along their extension encompass the axonemal complex which reveals the typical (9+2) arrangement of microtubules. The axonemal complex in the middle piece is enveloped within two successive sheaths, the mitochondrial and fibrous ones while its extension in the main piece is only encircled by the fibrous sheath. The end piece only manifestes the existence of the axonemal complex surrounded by the plasmalemma of the fully differentiated spermatids.

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Desert locations in Al-Burgan oil fields of Kuwait were subjected to oil pollution generated by the Gulf war in 1990. Studying sand lizard (Acanthodactylus scutellatus) population and their ant prey in the years 2002 and 2003 to monitor the effects of oil pollution was thought to be useful in an area damaged by oil spill. Sites with apparently different levels of pollution, namely tar mat, soot and clear sites were compared with control sites outside this area. Live specimens of A. scutellatus were collected by drift fence and pitfall traps and were marked by toe clipping and painting bands before they were released. Ant population was collected by removal methods using vacuum. The mark-recapture Schnabel method of population estimation was used. The results revealed no difference in lizard population sizes between the different study sites in 2002 and 2003. A slight difference was observed in ant population sizes between the sites in 2002 but no difference was detected between the sites in 2003. Although, the mean estimated lizard numbers were lowest at the tar mat sites, the ant number in this location was greatest, meaning that food availability was highest at these sites. This suggests any reduction in the numbers of lizards is unrelated to low resource availability.

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Desert ecosystems in Al-Burgan oil fields of Kuwait were contaminated by heavy metals and petroleum hydrocarbons due to oil spill generated by the Gulf War in 1990. Studying sand lizard (Acanthodactylus scutellatus) population and their ant prey in the years 2002 and 2003 to detect the effects of oil pollution is now a focus of study. Polluted sites with apparently different degrees of pollution (namely tar mat, soot and clear sites) were compared with control sites outside this region. Total lizard numbers were recorded by using transect method. Number of ants was recorded by walking the transects and counting ants present. The results showed no difference in lizard population between the different study sites in 2002 and 2003 by applying the transect method. No difference in ant populations between the different study sites in 2002 and 2003. Although, the mean estimated lizard numbers were lower at the tar mat sites, the ant number in this location was greatest, meaning that food availability was highest at these sites. This suggests any reduction in the numbers of lizards is unrelated to low resource availability. The lizard numbers at the tar mat sites could be depressed by some property of the pollutants.

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This study investigated the impact of oil pollution on morphological measurements in adult male and female sand lizards captured in locations with apparently different pollution levels. The results of this study confirmed that there is sexual dimorphism in body size, with males being generally larger than females at all the study sites. Adult male (but not female) lizards were generally bigger at the Tar mat and soot than the clear and control sites. The increase in body size and weight suggests that there is a greater availability of food for these somewhat territorial reptiles in both the Tar mat and soot sites. An alternative explanation is that the food resource is affected by oil pollution such that lizards consuming prey with high levels of fat accumulate more adipose tissue in their bodies.

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Using indicator species to monitor the effects of oil pollution was thought to be useful to assess whether local desert reptiles and their insect prey could fulfill such a role in an area damaged in the second Gulf War (1990). Polluted sites with apparently different degrees of contamination (namely tar mat, soot, and clear sites) located at Kuwait`s Greater Al-Burgan oil field were compared with control areas outside this region in study conducted in 2002. Five Acanthodactylus scutellatus lizards from each study and control site were humanely killed and stored in a freezer at -20 degrees C until analysis. Ants from the same sites were also collected and treated in a similar manner. Lizard and ant whole body tissues were subjected to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to determine concentrations of petroleum hydrocarbons (HCs). The study concentrated on sixteen polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), EPA priority pollutants used as indicators of petrogenic HC contamination. There were significantly different concentrations of total PAHs in lizards and ants among all four study sites. Of the 16 PAHs, phenanthrene, fluoranthene, and benzo[a]anthracene were present in both lizard and ant samples from the Greater Al-Burgan oil field sites irrespective of the apparent degree of pollution but were undetectable in materials from the control sites. The range of total PAHs in lizards was 26.5-301 ng g(-1) and it was 6.7-82.1 ng g(-1) in ants. Concentrations increased progressively along an expected contamination gradient. Total PAHs were detected in biota even in an area (clear site) that did not appear, virtually, to contain petroleum soil pollution which supports the value of indicator biota species. For all three sites where PAHs were found in biota, the ratio of total PAHs in ants to lizards was consistently 3.3-3.4. These data show that, although 12 years have passed since the Kuwait oil spill catastrophe, all sites are still contaminated with PAHs. Use of lizard and ant materials in monitoring such desert locations seems to be an effective strategy.

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The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of oil pollution in a desert location (the Greater Al-Burgan oil fields, an area damaged in the Gulf War in 1991) in Kuwait on the hepatotoxicity of the Sand lizard Acanthodactylus scutellatus (A. scutellatus). Twenty lizards (10 of each sex) from each polluted and each control sites were collected. Livers were removed from dissected animals and ready for fixation by Bouin`s solution and formal-saline. Twenty sections (10 from males and 10 from females) from each tar mat (polluted) and control sites were prepared and examined for cell diameter and nuclear measurements using Cell Analysis Systems. The cytology of hepatocytes showed normal appearance in samples from the control sites. Dead cells were abundant in the sections of lizard livers from the tar mat sites and occurred in notably greater numbers than the sections of livers of animals from the control sites. Examinations of the data confirm that the cell and nuclear diameters in liver samples of males collected from polluted sites were generally greater than those of corresponding females. The liver sections obtained from animals in the tar mat site had greater cellular diameters than counterparts from control sites. Females from the polluted sites were also affected by oil pollution by having larger hepatocyte diameters and their nuclei were also affected, being larger than female nuclei from the control sites. The most remarkable feature observed in hepatocytes of lizards collected from the tar mat sites were swelling of hepatocytes, ballooning degeneration of hepatic cytoplasm and cell death. This study confirmed that the prolonged exposure to oil pollution may result in increased accumulation of contaminants and may cause severe liver pathology in a range of wild organisms such as A. scutellatus.

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Oil pollution in desert locations in Greater Al-Burgan oil fields of Kuwait generated by the 1990 Gulf war has changed field behaviour and morphology of the Fringe-toed Lizard Acan- thodactylus scutellatus (Audouin, 1827). Lizards from the dark ‘tar mat’ locations are notably darker in colour than those from the control sites. Consequently, A. scutellatus collected from ‘tar mat’ and counterparts from lighter control sites were compared in laboratory studies where the lizards could choose between a dark and a light side of an enclosure. The former lizards showed a clear preference for darker substrates whereas the latter clearly preferred the light substrate. Dark lizards on tar mat have more effective crypsis but also some advantages in terms of solar gain (surprisingly, reptiles from tar mat sites are generally larger than counterparts from uncontami- nated sites). It is uncertain whether the presence of dark substrates for more than a decade (this study was conducted in 2003) has resulted in a selection of morphologically dark sand lizards with a preference for dark surfaces or whether these reptiles simply use their skin chromatophores to adapt to different surfaces but show a preference for substrates similar to their body colour- ation.

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An attempt was made to study the effects of oil pollution in a desert location (the Greater Al-Burgan oil fields, an area damaged in the second Gulf War) in Kuwait on the behaviour of the Sand lizard A, scutellatus. Polluted sites with apparently different degrees of contamination (namely tar mat, soot and clear sites) were compared with control areas outside this region. Between 2002 and 2003, ten lizards (5 of each sex) on each polluted and each control site were observed in the field at a time of the year when they were highly active. Air, substrate and burrow temperatures were recorded and lizards were monitored for their morning emergence times, as well as their basking and foraging activities. The present study confirmed that the morning emergence times and the basking behavior varied in sand lizards among the different pollution site categories. Physical changes in the tat mat sites caused the substrate temperatures in these locations to rise more quickly in the morning in response to solar gain than was the case in the other sites. This gives lizards in these locations the opportunity to emerge earlier and to start eating more quickly, giving them an energetic advantage (perhaps, in turn, influencing their rates of growth and fecundity). The cleat sites had the next earliest emergence and were the next hottest but it is difficult to account for this in terms of the physical characteristics of this site. The basking times were clearly shorter on the dark soot and tar mat sites that appeared to have higher solar gain than control or clear sites. There did not appear to be any obvious differences in foraging activity of lizards in the different locations. It appears that some aspects of simple behaviour in these lizards provides a reliable, noninvasive indices for assessing oil pollution in desert locations. The precise impact of these changes in these reptiles on their long-term viability needs to be evaluated.

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The reproductive biology of (reproductive behaviour, reproductive cycle and fat body cycle) Acanthodactylus schmidti was examined using specimens obtained from north of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Data for this research came both from ecological studies in the field and also histological examinations. The reproductive season (which coincided with the rainy season of the area) was found to commence in October–November and terminated in May. Young lizards were seen in the study area from as early as February and as late as June. There is evidence for the presence of multiple clutches (maximum of three) during each breeding season. It is concluded that the timing and length of the reproductive season and multiple clutches are an important adaptation for this species which inhabits desert regions with unpredictable weather conditions.

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Male lizards had larger home ranges than females and, in general, spring home ranges were greater than winter ones. Overlap in home ranges was not uncommon; extent of overlap varied greatly. Use of burrows by both species was similar but there was a difference in the use of habitats, eg A. schmidti were often seen basking in open areas, but A. boskianus were rarely seen on bare sand away from vegetation.

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A total number of 70 herpetofaunistic species organised in 3 orders and 18 families were surveyed during a period of two years (2005– 2007) in southern Jordan. The orders are (1) Ophidia has 7 families: Leptotyphlopidae (1 species), Typhlopidae (2 species), Boidae (1 species), Colubdridae (17 species), Atractaspididae (1 species), Elapidae (1 species) and Viperidae (5 species). (2) Sauria has 7 families: Gekkonidae (12 species), Chamaeleonidae (1 species), Agamidae (8 species), Lacertidae (3 species), Sincidae (8 species), Anguidae (1 species), Varanidae (1 species). (3) Testudines has 4 families: Cheloniidae (2 species), Dermochetylidae (1 species), Emydidae (1 species) and Testudinidae (1 species). The species listed were all resident and were mostly found throughout the year. The diversity of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in the study area encouraged the occurrence of the species. The results reinforce the necessity of longterm inventory plannings in order to understand the ecology and the dynamics of herpetofaunistic and other wildlife communities in the study area. The over-increasing of human impact on the existing natural resources in the southern Jordan has threatened the ecology diversity of wildlife species, where the populations of some herpetofaunaistic species (especially frog species) and many reptilian species are declining in diversity status and abundance. The author recommend at the end the improving cooperation of different parties to enhance the public awareness and to implement environmental laws and legislation to conserve the sensitive and rare species of herpetofauna components.

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A total of 70 herpetofauna species from 3 Orders and 18 Families were surveyed during a period of two years (2005-2007) in Southern Jordan. The Ophidia included Leptotyphlopidae, Typhlopidae, Boidae, Colubdridae, Atractaspididae, Elapidae and Viperidae. The Sauria included Gekkonidae, Chamaeleonidae, Agamidae, Lacertidae, Sincidae, Anguidae and Varanidae. Testudines included Cheloniidae, Dermochelyidae, Emydidae and Testudinidae. The species listed were all resident and mostly found throughout the year. The diversity of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in the study area likely encouraged species presence. The results reinforce the necessity for long-term inventory planning in order to understand the ecology and the dynamics of herpetofauna and other wildlife communities in the study area. The increasing human impact on the existing natural resources in Southern Jordan has threatened the ecology and diversity of wildlife species to such a degree that populations of anurans and many reptiles are declining in diversity, status and abundance. The author recommends improving cooperation of different parties to enhance public awareness and to implement environmental laws and legislation to conserve sensitive and rare species of herpetofauna.

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Aerobic and anaerobic metabolic rates were determined at temperatures between 20°C and 35°C for the viviparous lizard, Lacerta vivipara. Both parameters were found to be maximal around the preferred body temperature (30°C) with a low thermal temperature dependence above PBT. It is noted that L. vivipara does not need a large rate of anaerobic support and aerobic metabolism could supply the energy needed for activity.

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The resting metabolic rate-temperature curves of juvenile, sub-adult and adult stages of the lizard Acanthodactylus schmidti were studied at 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 and 35°C. The mass-specific resting metabolic rate equations at different temperatures were calculated. Juveniles and sub-adults were found to have higher rates of O2 consumption than adults. The values for mass regression coefficient «b» proved to be temperature-dependent and ranged from 0.11 at 10°C to 0.58 at 35°C

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Acute oxygen consumption determ inations for both adults and sub-adults of L. vivipara were made over the temperature range 5-30°C during summer and winter. D uring winter dormancy, both adults and sub-adults were found to have a m etabolic rate l ower than t h e metabolic rate of s u m m er animals at each experim ental temperature. This reduction of oxygen consumption in winter lizards can be interpreted as an `inverse compensation` ( Precht`s Type ) pattern of response). It is concluded that this adj ustment can reduce energy costs during the winter period and is a pre-requisite for survival during winte r dormancy.

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Oxygen consumption levels and metabolic rate temperature curves of various lizard species from three different climatic regions were examined in relation to ambient temperature. The species used in this research were as follows: Anguis fragilis, Lacerta vivipara, Lacerta agilis (cool temperate species); Blanus cinereus, Podarcis hispanica, Podarcis lilfordi brauni, Podarcis lilfordi lilfordi, Podarcis muralis, Psammodromus algirus, Tarentola mauritanica (warm temperate species); Chalcides ocellatus, Acanthodactylus opheodurus, Acanthodactylus schmidti (desert species). A double chamber volumetric closed system was used to measure the resting oxygen consumption of the lizards. Acute oxygen consumption determinations were made, that is the lizards were not allowed to acclimate to the test temperatures. Interspecific differences in levels of resting oxygen consumption and in the characteristics of the metabolic rate temperature curves were examined in relation to methods of thermoregulation and in relation to the ecology of the respective species. Evidence for `temperature dependent shifts` and `low thermal dependence` was found in the metabolic rate temperature curves of some species. A diminishing Q10 at or below the voluntary body temperatures suggests some degree of metabolic homeostatsis and energy conservation.

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The ocellated lizard, Chalcides ocellatus, and the common lizard, Lacerta vivipara, were acclimated to two temperature regimes (10 and 30 degrees C with 12L:12D photoperiod) for 2 weeks. The oxygen consumption rates were measured for both species at temperatures between 5 and 35 degrees C. Cold acclimation was observed in L. vivipara and was in the form of an upward translation of the metabolic rate-temperature curve in comparison to the warm-acclimated lizards (30 degrees C). Chalcides ocellatus showed a response to cold acclimation by decreasing its metabolism only at 10 degrees C.

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An extensive review on the taxonomic status, occurrence, geographical distribution, and the IUCN conservation status of 122 species/taxa (10 amphibians and 112 reptiles) belonging to 71 genera (8 genera of amphibians and 63 of reptiles) and to 25 families (5 families of amphibians and 20 families of reptiles) was made. As a part of Iraq’s unique biota, the knowledge of the herpetofauna of Iraq is poorly discovered and requires extensive field surveys, further research, and explorations in order to create full frame knowledge of its status and conservation.

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Isospora acanthodoclyli, new species is described from the feaces of Acanthodoctylus schmidti from Al-Thomama area in the central region of Saudi Arabia. Sporulated oocysts are spherical to subspherical 27.9×25.5 (25 1-29 8×22 7-27.8) μm Oocyst wall is smooth and bilayered Micropyle, oocyst residuum and polar granule absent Sporocysts are ovoid 14.6×11.1 (13.2-15.2×9 1-11.7) μm. Stieda and substiedal bodies are present. Sprozoites are hanana shaped with two spherical refractile globules. Isospora deserti (Finkelman and Paperna, 1994) is redescribed from the feces of Agama pallida in new geographical location. Sporulated oocysts measurement were similar to those reported previously from the same host in Israel (Finkelman and Paperna, 1994). Except for our observation of double layered wall, the oocyst morphology was identical to the original description of I. deserti.

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Organisms face numerous environmental stressors, which can affect developmental precision, including symmetry of various physical characteristics. Fluctuating asymmetry (FA) has therefore been suggested as a simple and efficient tool for assessing sub-lethal stress levels. We analyzed FA in two sympatric lizard species (Iberolacerta horvathi and Podarcis muralis) to determine potential effects of interspecific competition and urbanization, as proxies of stress, taking into account sexual dimorphism and environmental conditions. We sampled 16 syntopic and allotopic populations and used geometric morphometrics of head morphology. We detected significant but mixed effects on the head asymmetry from the environment and the syntopic occurrence that differed between species. P. muralis lizards had more asymmetric heads at higher altitudes, while I. horvathi lizards did at mid altitudes, which may be explained by P. muralis experiencing environmental stress of colder conditions at higher altitudes. The mid-altitude effect on asymmetries in I. horvathi might be explained by a lower availability of stony walls and higher abundance of P. muralis, thus higher competition. The asymmetry of supraciliary granules was affected by the presence of other species. However, lizards from allotopic populations attained larger asymmetries compared to lizards from syntopic populations, which was the opposite from what was expected. There was no effect of urbanization in P. muralis, which could be due to relatively low pollution and habitat degradation in study locations. Overall, we highlighted the possibility of using lizards and FA for bioindication of environmental stressors and especially improved the knowledge gap in the research of biotic stressors.

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We analysed asymmetry in the common wall lizard (Podarcis muralis) and the Horvath`s rock lizard (Iberolacerta horvathi) from 16 populations in Slovenia and Croatia to understand their connection with potential stress factors: altitude, urbanization and the presence of another species (interspecific competition). We also compared morphological body characteristics between the two species. We used geometric morphometric methods to create landmark coordinates in the photographs of lizards` heads. Modified ANOVAs and an asymmetry index were used to find the differences in four physical characteristics: shape and size of the head, body size and the number of supraciliar scales. We found fluctuating asymmetry in the number of supraciliar scales and the shape of the head in all of our samples. Both species had more asymmetric heads in the intermediate altitudes, which might be connected with lower availability of suitable habitats. Common wall lizards from urban environment did not have more asymmetries compared to those living in natural environments. Contrary to our expectations, we found more asymmetries in allotopic than syntopic populations, indicating limited effect of interspecific interactions. Horvath`s rock lizards had more asymmetric heads, which suggests they might be exposed to greater environmental stress, although genetic effects are also possible, since directional asymmetry was also detected.

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En Castilla y León, en 2021, la Junta de Castilla y León determina el comienzo del proyecto `Estudio para el seguimiento del estado de conservación de los anfibios y reptiles de Castilla y León`. Se realizó el muestreo dirigido sobre 18 cuadriculas UTM 10x10 km (2 por provincia) seleccionadas sobre hábitats favorables de las 13 ZEC propuestas en el Plan de Monitorización del Estado de Conservación de la Biodiversidad; de los Espacios Protegidos de la Red Natura 2000 y de los Espacios Naturales Protegidos de Castilla y León. La metodología es tomada del programa SARE (Seguimiento de los Anfibios y Reptiles Españoles). Además, dentro de los objetivos, se llevó a cabo la revisión bibliográfica y el muestreo específico para aumentar el conocimiento de tres especies de anfibios de interés comunitario: R. dalmatina, C. lusitanica e I. alpestris. Por un lado, la sequia del año 2022 ha producido malos resultados en los muestreos de anfibios con lo que habría que repetir el esfuerzo realizado sobre las especies prioritarias y por otro se han obtenido abundancias más bajas que el año anterior. En anfibios la especie que alcanzó mayor densidad en la mayoría de las estaciones donde estaba presente resultó ser E. calamita, seguido de L. boscai y P. perezi,. La media de la densidad máxima de anfibios ya metamorfoseados es mayor para los anuros que para los urodelos. La densidad larvaria máxima no varió significativamente por regiones biogeográficas, aunque los anuros fueron ligeramente más abundantes en la región mediterránea que en la atlántica. Las densidades larvarias variaron entre especies, siendo especialmente abundantes en A. obstetricans, P. cultripes, R. parvipalmata y T. pygmeus. Las especies de reptiles más abundantes durante los dos años de muestreo fueron: M. leprosa, I. cyreni, I. martinezricai, E. orbicularis, P. algirus, I. monticola y P. muralis. La densidad máxima varió significativamente entre grupos taxonómicos, con una densidad alta en quelonios, media en saurios, y muy pequeña en ofidios. Para calcular tendencias poblacionales se requieren tres años de seguimiento, hasta que no termine el 2023, no podemos valorar una posible evolución. No obstante hemos obtenido conclusiones metodológicas. Por ejemplo la inclusión de estaciones de muestreo especialmente favorables en zonas limítrofes a las cuadrículas UTM 10x10 ha sido acertada y, de hecho, probablemente hubiera sido todavía más acertado elegir las estaciones de muestreo sin atender a los límites de las cuadriculas. Los resultados corroboran que el área de estudio presenta poblaciones abundantes de anfibios y reptiles, aunque no exentas de problemas y muy variables en importancia según la zona geográfica, destacando la riqueza de las poblaciones de quelonios. También, y como cabría esperar, la biología particular de ofidios y quelonios aconseja la realización de censos específicos para estos grupos con objeto de obtener medidas más realistas de sus abundancias.

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Species distribution modelling is a powerful tool that can gives us ecological insights about species distributions, and potential effects of environmental factors, in poorly known habitats. For the first time the distribution of terrestrial reptiles in Saudi Arabia was modelled, and environmental factors that affect their current distribution and richness investigated. Reptiles are a major vertebrate group in Saudi Arabia and protecting them should be a priority for conservation in such an arid environment. Temperature was the most important of eleven predictors. Maximum species richness of reptiles was predicted in the central plateau, north-western borders, and in coastal areas of Saudi Arabia. Overall, the predicted and the observed patterns of species richness followed a similar pattern. Our analysis revealed that large scattered parts of Saudi Arabia are considered under-sampled in terms of sampling efforts of terrestrial reptile species. Our results represent the most comprehensive description of terrestrial reptile diversity distributions and habitat suitability in Saudi Arabia to date.

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Gallotia, es un género endémico de lacértidos de Canarias representado por 7 especies actuales (Arnold, 1973; 2007; Arnold et al., 2007) y de 10 a 13 subespecies de lagartos (Bischoff, 1985; López-Jurado, 1991). Los lagartos gigantes de las islas

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Die Gesprenkelte Kanareneidechse, Gallotia intermedia, ist eine für Teneriffa endemische Art. Sie kommt in zwei getrennten Populationen vor, eine im Nordwesten der Insel (in den Klippen von Los Gigantes) und eine in der Nähe der Südspitze (Klippen von Guaza). Die Populationen sind jeweils recht klein, 280-460 beziehungsweise ca. 900 Tiere. In beiden Fällen kommen die Tiere von Meereshöhe bis zum Gipfel der Klippen vor, und sie können auch in steilen Schluchten ein paar hundert Meter ins Inselinnere vordringen. Die Eidechsen gelten als vom Aussterben bedroht. Die Hauptbedrohung geht von verwilderten Katzen und Ratten aus.

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Au 1er décembre 2009, la base de données herpétologiques de la Société des Sciences Naturelles de Tarn-et-Garonne comptait 2506 données géoréférencées. A partir de ces données, le présent article fait état de la répartition des Reptiles et Amphibiens dans le département de Tarn-et-Garonne et sur le secteur de la Forêt de Grésigne.

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The city of Toulouse is engaged in a policy of census, conservation and development of urban biodiversity. In this context, a survey of the fauna and flora has been ordered to the consulting firm Biotope. Nineteen sites, chosen by the City of Toulouse for their potential interest, have been surveyed in 2009. A supplementary site was surveyed in 2011. Also, data was gathered from other organisms involved in biodiversity monitoring. This article presents the results of the data collected in the course of this study, with addition of supplementary data from the authors. This study enabled to enhance the current knowledge on the herpetofauna of the county of Toulouse, with more than 600 field data collected, and the discovery of three new taxa. The number of amphibian and reptile species of Toulouse is respectively twelve and ten.

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The composition of the food of Genetta genetta was studied from 17 groups of droppings with more than 2000 remains of animals and an undeterminated number of plants. On the small island of Cabrera lizards form the main diet. On the other islands mammals (Rodentia) and lizards (Lacertidae, Geckonidae) are the most common prey animals, followed by various insects. Plant material has been found more regularly on Ibiza. Genetta certainly is an euryphagous animal, but this behaviour pattern may alter to a stenophagous phase in certain environments.

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Caves are prone to preserve fossils, mainly of vertebrates. On the Balearic Islands the Pliocene and Quaternary vertebrate fossil record allows to study the faunal composition and faunistical turnover on each island. On the Gymnesic Islands Myotragus balearicus was an endemic fossil Caprinae that lived until human arrival. It was the key species to understand the islands` ecology. The terrestrial vertebrate fauna that lived with Myotragus comprised a dormouse and a shrew, as well as an endemic lizard and the ferreret. The Upper Pleistocene and Holocene vertebrate fauna from the Pityusic Islands was only composed by birds, bats, and a lizard species. The absence of terrestrial mammals in this fauna constitutes the greatest faunistical anomaly in the whole Mediterranean.

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In this paper we present a biogeographical analysis of the herpetological biota of the Balearics and Pityusics. Baleaphyne muletensis, Lacerta (Podarcis) lilfordi and Lacerta (Podarcis) pityusensis are considered as palaeoendemics and, plausibly, they colonized our islands during the Messinian. All the remaining species of the present day herpetological biota must have inmigrated to Balearics and Pityusiccs due to the intervention of man.

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A preliminary checklist of the herpetofauna of Palestine (West Bank and Gaza Strip) Governorates is presented based on records of amphibian and reptile species whose presence has been confirmed in Palestine`s governorates as a result of extensive field expeditions, examination of fixed herpetological collections, literature review, and personal communications from researchers. The paper reports 95 original data on the Palestinian herpetofauna (4 Amphibians and 54 reptiles), deriving from field observations. The herpetofauna of Palestine consists of 58 species belonging to forty six genera and twenty families. Species found in this study either globally or regionally distributed. Majority of species (44 species) fall in the least concern category of the IUCN Red List Category. One species found to be categorized as critically endangered, and another species found to be categorized as endangered. Two Species found to be categorized as threatened, and three Species as vulnerable accordingly.

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This paper describes the habitat of Acanthodactylus schmidti Hass in Saudi Arabia and its present systematic position. The evidence suggests A. schmidti is a valid species. It is adapted to the sand dune habitat, particularly in areas with low scrubby vegetation. Its burrows are dug only among the roots of Hammada elegans .

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67 species and subspecies of amphibians and reptiles In the Azerbaldzhan Republic. 18 species and subspecies may be attributed the status of rare and disappearing (26.8%). Of this number, 8 species of amphibians and reptiles have been Included in the `Red Book of Rare Species of Animals and Plants of the USSR and those Endangered with Disappearance`: Pelobates syrlacus. Testudo graeca ibera, Agama ruderata, Lacerta parva, Elaphe longissima, Rhynchocalamus melanocephalus satunini, Vlpera ammodytes transcaucasiana and V. xanthina. The species are seriously endangered in the Azerbaldzhan: Triturus vulgaris, T. cristatus karelini, Bufo bufo verrucosissimus, Phrynocephalus heiloscopus, Mabuya aurata, Ablepharus bivittatus, Elaphe hohenackeri, Psammophis lineolatum, Vipera ursinii and Agkistrodon halys caucasicus.

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This bachelor thesis deals with testing the buccal swab method as a non-invasive toxicological method. Environmental pollution due to anthropogenic influence is increasing, therefore more attention is focused on researching the impact of pollution on organisms and the environment. Recent researches try to encroach on nature as little as possible and degrade it in any way, which gives importance to such methods. They are increasingly used in higher groups of vertebrates (mammals), but at the level of herpetofauna it has not yet been investigated. During the research, 16 lizards (five Lacerta agilis and 11 Podarcis muralis) were caught and their swabs were taken. The samples were processed and the amount of protein was determined. Due to the very low values of the protein concentration, the enzyme activity was not determined. The method proved to be unreliable because small fluctuations in the amount of sample significantly affect the result. In addition, high-quality swabbing of lizards is difficult due to the impossibility of turning the stick in order to take the required amount of sample.

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We found significant variations in the pattern of sexual dimorphism in body size and shape among and within three lacertid species (Podarcis muralis, P. melisellensis and Archaeolacerta oxycephala), which live within a very restricted area (Lake Skadar, Montenegro) and under similar ecological settings. Each species has a specific pattern of size and shape relations between the sexes that proportionally changes with increase in size of the males, contrary to the expectations of Rensch`s rule. Our data do not confirm unequivocally that the level of size differences between the sexes (SSD) is affected by the body shape of two different morphotypes (cylindric vs. flattened body), or by the insularity conditions (island size, distance from mainland and the presence of syntopic lizard species). However, SSD appears to be positively correlated with clutch size at the interspecies level of comparisons.

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We studied male and female one-year reproductive, fat body and liver cycle of the common wall lizard (Podarcis muralis muralis) from the urban and suburban localities of Belgrade. The minimum size at which females attain sexual maturity was between 49.78 and 51.25 mm of the snout-vent length. Vitellogenesis started at the end of March. The size and number of vitellogenic follicles varied considerably during the season. Increase in the female size leads to a significant increase in number but not in size of vitellogenic follicles. Females with oviductal eggs were found from late May to late July. Two clutches with mean size of 3.5±0.31 were laid in 1994. We found a significant positivecorrelationbetween female size and oviductalclutch size, while partial correlationbetween SVL and mean egg volume,as well as between clutch size and mean egg volume was insignificant. Relative oviductal clutch mass had the mean value of 0.17 ± 0.01, and was not correlated with female size. Testicles and epididymides exhibited maximal weight during April-June, and minimum in late July. The increase in male SVL lead to a significant increase in testicular and epididymal mass. Viable spermatozoa were produced from March were the smallest during the mating period while female fat bodies and liver decreased in weight during vitellogenesis. Mass of fat bodies and liver were significantly positively correlated with SVL in both sexes

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We estimated changes in the components of phenotypic variance and covariance among seven metric traits over the first 90 days of growth in the sharp-snouted rock lizard (Lacerta oxycephala). The broad-sense heritability estimated from the data representing mostly size components of the seven morphometic traits over four age periods was about 90%. The average broad-sense heritability for the shape components of the same traits and age periods amounted to about 42%. By using bivariate and multivariate statistical methods, ontogenetic allometry coefficients have been estimated. The average heritability estimated for the bivariate allometric coefficients was about 69%. Genetic correlation structures were highly integrated within each age period and this integration increased from newborn lizards to lizards aged up to 90 days. For absolute measurements, phenotypic correlation structures were less integrated than genetic correlation structures, while for size-free measurements the opposite trend was observed.

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Dietary studies are essential to unravel the functioning of ecosystems and ultimately to understand biodiversity. This task, which at first may seem simple, becomes especially complex in those cases of omnivorous species with highly variable diets. In this regard, the emergence of next-generation DNA sequencing methodologies represents a powerful tool to address the problem. Here we implement a high-throughput metabarcoding strategy based on the analysis of four molecular markers aimed at sequencing both mitochondrial (animal prey) and chloroplast (diet plants) genome fragments from fecal samples of two lizard species endemic to the Balearic Archipelago (Podarcis lilfordi and P. pityusensis) obtained through non-invasive methods. The results allowed for the characterization of their diets with a high degree of taxonomic detail and have contributed a large number of new trophic records. The reported diets are based mainly on the consumption of arthropods, mollusks and plants from a diversity of taxonomic orders, as well as carrion and marine subsidies. Our analyses also reveal inter- and intra-specific differences both in terms of seasonality and geographical distribution of the sampled lizard populations. These molecular findings provide new insights into the trophic interactions of these threatened endemic lizards in their unique and isolated ecosystems.

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The diets of insular lizards are extremely varied, depending on the different environmental characteristics of each island population. This is particularly evident in the case of the populations of small coastal islets of the Balearic Islands, where the Balearic lizard, Podarcis lilfordi, is found. The study of trophic ecology carried out by means of traditional tools, such as morphological analysis of feces, has made it possible to detect numerous prey and nutritional elements. However, these methods are clearly insufficient, as some rare groups are not detected. It is also difficult to identify remains of marine subsidies or of foods contributed to these small islands by other predators, such as seabirds. The current study demonstrates the advantages of combining morphological diet analysis with the molecular study of individual feces samples obtained from the same populations. We obtained a greater diversity of prey groups using the combined methodologies, with each method identifying prey items that were not detected using the other method. Particularly, the study of diets at the molecular level identified plant species consumed by lizards that were, occasionally, not identified in morphological analyses. Conversely, the traditional morphological study of an equivalent number of fecal samples allowed for the identification of several prey groups that had not been detected in the molecular study. From this viewpoint, the advantages and disadvantages of each methodology are discussed.

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Gut microbial communities provide essential functions to their hosts and are known to influence both their ecology and evolution. However, our knowledge of these complex associations is still very limited in reptiles. Here we report the 16S rRNA gene faecal microbiota profiles of two lizard species endemic to the Balearic archipelago (Podarcis lilfordi and P. pityusensis), encompassing their allopatric range of distribution through a noninvasive sampling, as an alternative to previ- ous studies that implied killing specimens of these IUCN endangered and near-threatened species, respectively. Both lizard species showed a faecal microbiome composition consistent with their omnivorous trophic ecology, with a high representa- tion of cellulolytic bacteria taxa. We also identified species-specific core microbiota signatures and retrieved lizard species, islet ascription, and seasonality as the main factors in explaining bacterial community composition. The different Balearic Podarcis populations are characterised by harbouring a high proportion of unique bacterial taxa, thus reinforcing their view as unique and divergent evolutionary entities.

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We measured the effects of deltamethrin, a pyrethroid insecticide, on individuals of two lizard species,Meroles suborbitalis and Pedioplanis namaquensis, in enclosures under controlled conditions, and under field conditions. We found significant effects on lizard mortality rates in the enclosure experiments, with most lizards dying within two months of treatment. Our field-based investigation, conducted over a five-month period, revealed significant reductions in abundance of M. suborbitalis (reduced by 52%) and P. namaquensis, (reduced by 72%) one and four weeks after spraying with deltamethrin. At 18 weeks after spraying there was no longer a significant difference in abundance measures between treatment and control plots, due to the invasion of the plots by juveniles.

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Spontaneous regrowth of the axons of retinal ganglion cells (RGC) occurs after unilateral optic nerve transection (ONT) in the lizard Gallotia galloti. We have performed an immunohistochemical and ultrastructural study of the conus papillaris (CP) of this lizard during ontogeny and after ONT in order to characterize its cell subpopulations, innervation and putative blood-brain barrier (BBB) and to evaluate changes occurring throughout regeneration. Proliferating PCNA+ cells were abundant between embryonic stage 33 (E33) and hatching. From E33, we observed Pax2+/GS+ glial cells in the primitive CP, which became increasingly pigmented and vascularised from E35. Conal astrocytes coexpressing Pax2 with vimentin and/or GFAP were identified from E37-E38. GluT-1+/LEA+/Pax2- endothelial cells (ECs) formed a continuous endothelium with tight junctions and luminal and abluminal microfolds. In adults, the peripheral blood vessels showed a thinner calibre, stronger GluT-1 staining and more abundant microfolds than those of the central CP indicating the higher specialization involved during transport within the former. Occasional pericytes, abundant Pax2+ pigment cells, LEA+ microglia/macrophages, unmyelinated Tuj1+ nerve fibres and SV2+ synaptic vesicles were also observed in the perivascular zone. After ONT, the expression of GluT-1 and p75NTR persisted in ECs, suggesting the preservation/early recovery of the BBB. Relevant ultrastructural alterations were observed at 0.5 months postlesion, although, by 3 months, the CP had recovered the ultrastructure of controls indicating tissue recovery. Abnormal newly formed blood vessels had developed in the CP-optic nerve junction. Thus, the CP is a central nervous system structure whose regenerating capacity might be key for the nutritional support of regenerating RGCs in G. galloti.

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Im Auftrag des Hessische Dienstleistungszentrums für Landwirtschaft, Gartenbau und Naturschutz (HDLGN) führte die Arbeitsgemeinschaft Amphibien- und Reptilienschutz in Hessen e.V. (AGAR) 2003 eine Erfassung der Zauneidechse (Lacerta agilis) in Hessen durch. Durch Auswertung vorhandener Dokumente und durch eine landesweite Kartierung konnten insgesamt 470 Datensätze zu Zauneidechsensichtungen für den Zeitraum 1998- 2003 erfasst werden. Die Zauneidechse läßt sich im Vergleich zu anderen Reptilienarten verhältnismäßig leicht kartieren. Nicht desto trotz beruhen einige Hinweise auf Zufallsbeobachtungen. Die Auswertung der rezenten Verbreitungsdaten zeigt, dass die Art über fast ganz Hessen verbreitet ist und örtlich sogar relativ häufig angetroffen werden kann. Scheinbare Verbreitungslücken in ansonsten offensichtlich geeigneten Gebieten lassen sich vermutlich durch gezielte Regionalkartierungen schließen. Die Zauneidechse fehlt in Hessen vermutlich lediglich in den bewaldeten Hochlagen von Kellerwald, Rhön, Vogelsberg und Taunus. Die Zauneidechse kann zu den häufigsten Reptilienarten in Hessen gezählt werden. Die Bestandsentwicklung ist aber vermutlich rückläufig, wie dies z. B. auch für Rheinland-Pfalz vermutet wird (HAHN-SIRY 1996). Es wird angeregt, in Hessen zunächst auf der Basis regelmäßiger Präsenz-Absenz-Untersuchungen ein stichprobenartiges Monitoring an ausgewählten Zauneidechsen-Standorten einzuführen. Die Abschätzung von Abnahmetrends müsste über den Verlust gesamter Populationen erfolgen. Jegliche Monitoring-Ansätze sollten eine Komponente zur Bewertung der Habitatentwicklung beinhalten. Methoden und Bewertungsrahmen können provisorisch definiert werden, sollten aber in ihrer endgültigen Form gemeinsam mit anderen Bundesländern erarbeitet werden. Das vorliegende Gutachten enthält einen Steckbrief der Zauneidechse sowie den Entwurf eines Bewertungsrahmens.

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Identifying the factors generating ecomorphological diversity within species can provide a window into the nascent stages of ecological radiation. Sexual dimorphism is an obvious axis of intraspecific morphological diversity that could affect how environmental variation leads to ecological divergence among populations. In this paper we test for sex-specific responses in how environmental variation generates phenotypic diversity within species, using the generalist lizard Gallotia galloti on Tenerife (Canary Islands). We evaluate two hypotheses: the first proposes that different environments have different phenotypic optima, leading to shifts in the positions of populations in morphospace between environments; the second posits that the strength of trait-filtering differs between environments, predicting changes in the volume of morphospace occupied by populations in different environments. We found that intraspecific morphological diversity, provided it is adaptive, arises from both shifts in populations’ position in morphospace and differences in the strength of environmental filtering among environments, especially at high elevations. However, effects were found only in males; morphological diversity of females responded little to environmental variation. These results within G. galloti suggest natural selection is not the sole source of phenotypic diversity across environments, but rather that variation in the strength of, or response to, sexual selection may play an important role in generating morphological diversity in environmentally diverse settings. More generally, disparities in trait–environment relationships among males and females also suggest that ignoring sex differences in studies of trait dispersion and clustering may produce misleading inferences.

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The present qualitative autoradiographic analysis aims to present the main features of morphogenesis and growth of claws in reptiles. Lizard embryos treated with tritiated thymidine reveal that epidermal cell proliferation in terminal digits is prevalent in the dorsal side and gives origin to the curved unguis of the claw. Less proliferation occurs in the ventral side of the digit tip where the concave sub-unguis is derived. Adult claws of a turtle show that thymidine-labelled cells are present along most of the epidermis of the claw, especially at the claw tip. Also, injection of tritiated histidine and proline, indicating active protein synthesis, confirm autoradiographic labelling along most of the epidermis of claws, in particular at the apical tip. The present study indicates that proximal matrix regions, as have been described in mammalian nails, are absent in reptiles. This pattern of claw growth probably derives from that of terminal digital scales. In fact reptilian (and avian) claws are formed from a modification of scales, a different condition from that present in mammals.

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Tail regeneration in lizards depends on the stimulation of growth factors, including Fibroblast Growth Factors (FGFs). Light and ultrastructural immunolocalization of FGFs was compared between the regenerating tail blastema and the limb where no regeneration occurs. A likely epithelial-mesenchymal transition occurs following amputation in both tail and limb and FGFs are present in the wound epidermis of both organs at 7-14 days post-amputation, and at lower intensity in mesenchymal cells of the blastema. Immunoreactivity for FGFs disappears in the limb wound epidermis after 14 days post-amputation and in the epithelium covering tails induced to form scars, whereas it remains in the apical tail epithelium. These observations suggest that scarring in the limb or the induced scarring in the tail correlate with the disappearance of FGFs. Basic FGF is concentrated in the incomplete basement membrane between the epidermis and the tail blastema where the essential signaling process that allows the continuous growth of the regenerative blastema may occur. The study suggests that the successful regeneration of lizard tail is dependent on the presence of FGFs in the wound epidermis, which are probably released into the blastema.

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In order to study some of the proteins involved in tissue remodeling and regeneration, the stem cell marker and dynamic cytoskeletal protein nestin have been detected using immunocytochemistry in normal and regenerating tail of lizard. In tissues of the normal tail, nestin is only present in the alpha-layer of scales and in sparse cells of connective tissues. However, during tail regeneration, nestin is more commonly detected in various tissues, especially in the epidermis and regenerating scales, muscles, nerves and in the growing spinal cord. Sporadic nestin immunopositive cells are seen in the regenerating blastema and derived connective tissues. In the epidermis, nestin is expressed in the main sites of cell proliferation located in the apical alpha-keratinocytes of the forming scales, but disappears in beta-cells. In the regenerating muscles, nestin is seen in myoblasts and elongating myotubes, but disappears in mature muscles. Nestin appears in the growing nerves and in a few neurons of the regenerating spinal cord. It is present in the apical ependymal cells and in peripheral nerves and Schwann cells. The dynamic cytoskeletal protein nestin appears to be activated in the main sites of cell proliferation and cytoskeletal remodeling needed for re-epithelization and the differentiation of new scales, muscles and nervous tissue.

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The lumbar spinal cords of lizards were transected, but after the initial paralysis most lizards recovered un-coordinated movements of hind limbs. At 25-45 days post-lesion about 50% of lizards were capable of walking with a limited coordination. Histological analysis showed that the spinal cord was transected and the ependyma of the central canal formed two enlargements to seal the proximal and distal ends of the severed spinal cord. Glial and few small neurons were formed while bridge axons crossed the gap between the proximal and the distal stumps of the transected spinal cord as was confirmed by retrograde tract-tracing technique. The bridging fibers likely derived from interneurons located in the central and dorsal grey matter of the proximal spinal cord stump suggesting they belong to the local central locomotory pattern generator circuit. The limited recovery of hind limb movements may derive from the regeneration or sprouting of short proprio-spinal axons joining the two stumps of the transected spinal cord. The present observations indicate that the study on spinal cord regeneration in lizards can give insights on the permissive conditions that favor nerve regeneration in amniotes.

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After lumbar spinal cord transection, lizards recover some un-coordinated movements of the hind limbs including some walking ability. The transected spinal cord was examined using electron microscopy to study the degree of regeneration. A bridge tissue located between the two proximal and distal ends of the transected spinal cord, representing the regenerated cord, was found at 29-45 days post-lesion. The ependyma formed ampullar enlargements but no continuous central canal between the two stumps was re-established. Some cerebro-spinal fluid contacting neurons and peri-ependymal small neurons contacted by few synaptic boutons were found. Pale cells of astrocyte type were also identified. Numerous unmyelinated and sparse myelinated axons in the bridge appear connected to ependymal cells and oligodendrocytes. The origin of these axons remains unknown but previous studies have indicated that at least some of them are derived from interneurons, including those located around the central canal and in the dorsal grey matter of the proximal spinal cord stump. This limited regeneration can explain the recovery of part of the motor activity of the hind limbs in these lizards, possibly through the re-connection across the bridge of the intrinsic circuit of the central locomotory pattern generator.

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During tail regeneration in lizards, the epidermis forms new scales comprising a hard beta-layer and a softer alpha-layer. Regenerated scales derive from a controlled folding process of the wound epidermis that gives rise to epidermal pegs where keratinocytes do not invade the dermis. Basal keratinocytes of pegs give rise to suprabasal cells that initially differentiate into a corneous wound epidermis and later in corneous layers of the regenerated scales. The immunodetection of a putative p53/63 protein in the regenerating tail of lizards shows that immunoreactivity is present in the nuclei of basal cells of the epidermis but becomes mainly cytoplasmic in suprabasal and in differentiating keratinocytes. Sparse labelled cells are present in the regenerating blastema, muscles, cartilage, ependyma and nerves of the growing tail. Ultrastructural observations on basal and suprabasal keratinocytes show that the labelling is mainly present in the euchromatin and nucleolus while labelling is more diffuse in the cytoplasm. These observations indicate that the nuclear protein in basal keratinocytes might control their proliferation avoiding an uncontrolled spreading into other tissues of the regenerating tail but that in suprabasal keratinocytes the protein moves from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, a process that might be associated to keratinocyte differentiation.

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Cartilage regeneration is massive during tail regeneration in lizards but little is known about cartilage regeneration in other body regions of the skeleton. The recovery capability of injured epiphyses of femur and tibia of lizard knees has been studied by histology and 5BrdU immunohistochemistry in lizards kept at high environmental temperatures. Lizard epiphyses contain a secondary ossified center of variable extension surrounded peripherally by an articular cartilage and basally by columns of chondrocytes that form the mataphyseal or growth plate. After injury of the knee epiphyses, a broad degeneration of the articular cartilage during the first days post-injury is present. However a rapid regeneration of cartilaginous tissue is observed from 7 to 14 days post-injury and by 21 days post-lesions, a large part of the epiphyses are reformed by new cartilage. Labeling with 5BrdU indicates that the proliferating cells are derived from both the surface of the articular cartilage and from the metaphyseal plate, two chondrogenic regions that appear proliferating also in normal, uninjured knees. Chondroblasts proliferate by interstitial multiplication forming isogenous groups with only a scant extracellular matrix that later increases. The high regenerative power of lizard articular cartilage appears related to the permanence of growing cartilaginous centers in the epiphyses of long bones such as those of the knee during adulthood. It is likely that these regions contain resident stem cells that give rise to new chondroblasts of the articular and metaphyseal cartilage during most of the lizard’s lifetime, but can produce an excess of cartilaginous tissues when stimulated by the lesion.

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The epiphysis of femur and tibia in the lizard Podarcis muralis can extensively regenerate after injury. The process involves the articular cartilage and metaphyseal (growth) plate after damage. The secondary ossification center present between the articular cartilage and the growth plate is replaced by cartilaginous epiphyses after about one month of regeneration at high temperature. The present study analyzes the origin of the chondrogenic cells from putative stem cells located in the growing centers of the epiphyses. The study is carried out using immunocytochemistry for the detection of 5BrdU-labeled long retaining cells and for the localization of telomerase, an enzyme that indicates stemness. The observations show that putative stem cells retaining 5BrdU and positive for telomerase are present in the superficial articular cartilage and metaphyseal growth plate located in the epiphyses. This observation suggests that these areas represent stem cell niches lasting for most of the lifetime of lizards. In healthy long bones of adult lizards, the addition of new chondrocytes from the stem cells population in the articular cartilage and the metaphyseal growth plate likely allows for slow, continuous longitudinal growth. When the knee is injured in the adult lizard, new populations of chondrocytes actively producing chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan are derived from these stem cells to allow for the formation of completely new cartilaginous epiphyses, possibly anticipating the re-formation of secondary centers in later stages. The study suggests that in this lizard species, the regenerative ability of the epiphyses is a pre-adaptation to the regeneration of the articular cartilage.

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Tissue regeneration in lizards represents a unique model of regeneration and scarring in amniotes. The tail and limb contain putative stem cells but also dedifferentiating cells contribute to regen- eration. Following tail amputation, inflammation is low and cell proliferation high, leading to regeneration while the intense inflammation in the limb leads to low proliferation and scarring. FGFs stimulate tail and limb regeneration and are present in the wound epidermis and blastema while they disappear in the limb wound epidermis 2–3 weeks postamputation in the scarring outgrowth. FGFs localize in the tail blastema and the apical epidermal peg (AEP), an epidermal microregion that allows tail growth but is absent in the limb. Inflammatory cells invade the limb blastema and wound epidermis, impeding the formation of an AEP. An embryonic program of growth is activated in the tail, dominated by Wnt-positive and -negative regulators of cell prolif- eration and noncoding RNAs, that represent the key regenerative genes. The balanced actions of these regulators likely impede the formation of a tumor in the tail tip. Genes for FACIT and fib- rillar collagens, protease inhibitors, and embryonic keratins are upregulated in the regenerating tail blastema. A strong downregulation of genes for both B and T-lymphocyte activation suggests the regenerating tail blastema is a temporal immune-tolerated organ, whereas a scarring pro- gram is activated in the limb. Wnt inhibitors, pro-inflammatory genes, negative regulators of cell proliferation, downregulation of myogenic genes, proteases, and oxidases favoring scarring are upregulated. The evolution of an efficient immune system may be the main limiting barrier for organ regeneration in amniotes, and the poor regeneration of mammals and birds is associated with the efficiency of their mature immune system. This does not tolerate embryonic antigens formed in reprogrammed embryonic cells (as for neoplastic cells) that are consequently elimi- natedimpedingtheregenerationoflostorgans.

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Fibroblast Growth Factors 1-2 (FGF1-2) stimulate tail regeneration in lizards and therefore the distribution of their receptors, FGFR1-2, in the regenerating tail of the lizard. Podarcis muralis has been studied using immunofluorescence and western blotting. Immunoreactive protein bands at 15–16 kDa for FGF1-2 in addition to those at 50–65 kDa are detected in the regenerating epidermis, but weak bands at 35, 45 and 50 kDa appear from the regenerating connective tissues. Strongly immunolabeled bands for FGFR1 at 32, 60, and 80 kDa and less intense for FGFR2 only appear in the regenerating tail. In normal tail epidermis and dermis, higher MW forms are present at 80 and 115–140 kDa, respectively, but they disappear in the regenerating epidermis and dermis where low MW forms of FGFR1-2 are found at 50–70 kDa. Immunolocalization confirms that most FGFR1-2 are present in the wound epidermis, Apical Epidermal Peg, ependymal tube while immunolabeling lowers in regenerating muscles, blastema cells, cartilage and connectives tissues. The likely release of FGFs from the Apical Epidermal Peg and ependyma and the presence of their receptors in these tissues may determine the autocrine stimulation of proliferation and a paracrine stimulation of the blastema cells through their FGF Receptors.

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Immunodetection of High Mobility Group Proteins (HMGs) in the regenerating tail of lizard indicates activation for cell proliferation. Acta Zoologica (Stockolm). High Mobility Group Proteins (HMGs) are involved in chromatin assembling and control of transcription, especially during development. Transcriptome data indicate that HMGs are abundantly expressed in the early regenerating tail of lizards but their cellular localization remains unknown. Protein bands at 60–62 and 28–30 kDa are detected in western blots, more intense in the regenerating blastema. Immunodetection of HMGs in regenerating tail of the lizard Podarcis muralis indicates that these proteins are mainly localized in tissues where cell proliferation is as active as the apical wound epidermis, ependyma of the spinal cord and pro‐muscle aggregates. Few immunolabelled cells were seen in the regenerating cartilage and growing myomeres or nerves. Only in the wound epidermis labelled cells show a prevalent nuclear labelling while in other tissues a cytoplasmic labelling is prevalent. Only sparse immunolabelled cells are observed in the apical mesenchymal blastema and in the derived connective tissues formed in the mature regions of the regenerating tail, also destined to form adipose cells. The study suggests that the tissues with the highest immunolabelling correspond to those containing more proliferating cells, and that HMGs are mainly activated in these cells to promote cell division for the growth of the new tail.

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Regeneration of the tail in lizards suggests that a continuous remodelling process is active in the developing tissues. The present immunological study has detected Matrix Metalloproteinases (MMPs), previously indicated from a transcriptome study, in the lizard Podarcis muralis. Immunoblots show a main labelled band for MMPs around 68 kDa, possibly a MMP16‐like. Immunofluorescence shows that MMPs are mainly present in the central apical region of the mesenchymal blastema, in the ependyma of regenerating spinal cord, and in the basal layer and basement membrane‐region of the apical wound epidermis. The immune‐labelling decreases or disappears in differentiating tissues present in proximal regions of the regenerating tail such as the epidermis and dermis, muscles, inner connective tissues and in the axial cartilaginous tube. The prevalent localization of MMPs in the central mesenchyme of the blastema indicates a continuous remodelling of the extracellular matrix that actively contributes to the progressive distal growth of the apical blastema into a new tail. The study stresses that in regenerating organs of amniotes, a massive growth can only occur where connective tissues are maintained loose by the continuous action of extracellular matrix proteases in concert with the high production of hyaluronate and consequent tissue hydration.

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Lizards are key amniote models for studying organ regeneration. During tail regeneration in lizards, blastemas contain sparse granulocytes, macrophages, and lymphocytes among the prevalent mesenchymal cells. Using transmission electron microscopy to examine scarring blastemas after third and fourth sequential tail amputations, the number of granulocytes, macrophages, and lymphocytes increased at 3–4 weeks in comparison to the first regeneration. An increase in granulocytes and agranulocytes also occurred within a week after blastema cauterization during the process of scarring. Blood at the third and fourth regeneration also showed a significant increase in white blood cells compared with that under normal conditions and at the first regeneration. The extracellular matrix of the scarring blastema, especially after cauterization, was denser than that in the normal blastema and numerous white blood cells and fibroblasts were surrounded by electron-pale, fine fibrinoid material mixed with variable collagen fibrils. In addition to previous studies, the present observations support the hypothesis that an increase in inflammation and immune reactions determine scarring rather than regeneration. These new findings verify that an immune reaction against mesenchymal and epidermal cells of the regenerative blastema is one of the main causes for the failure of organ regeneration in amniotes.

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The immunolocalization of the muscle segmental homoeobox protein Msx1‐2 of 27–34 kDa in the regenerating tail blastema of a lizard shows prevalent localization in the apical ependyma of the regenerating spinal cord and less intense labelling in the wound epidermis, in the apical epidermal peg (AEP), and in the regenerating segmental muscles. The AEP is a micro‐region of the regenerating epidermis located at the tail tip of the blastema, likely corresponding to the AEC of the amphibian blastema. No immunolabelling is present in the wound epidermis and scarring blastema of the limb at 18–21 days of regeneration, except for sparse repairing muscles. The presence of a proximal–distal gradient of Msx1‐2 protein, generated from the apical ependyma, is suggested by the intensity of immunolabelling. The AEP and the ependyma are believed to induce and maintain tail regeneration, and this study suggests that Msx1‐2 proteins are components of the signalling system that maintains active growth of the tail blastema. The lack of activation and production of Msx1‐2 protein in the limb are likely due to the intense inflammatory reaction following amputation. This study confirms that, like during regeneration in fishes and amphibians, also the blastema of lizards utilizes common signalling pathways for maintaining regeneration.

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Ephrin receptors are the most common tyrosine kinase effectors operating during development. Ephrin receptor genes are reported to be up-regulated in the regenerating tail of the Podarcis muralis lizard. Thus, in the current study, we investigated immunolocalization of ephrin receptors in the Podarcis muralis tail during regeneration. Weak immunolabelled bands for ephrin receptors were detected at 15–17 kDa, with a stronger band also detected at 60–65 kDa. Labelled cells and nuclei were seen in the basal layer of the apical wound epidermis and ependyma, two key tissues stimulating tail regeneration. Strong nuclear and cytoplasmic labelling were present in the segmental muscles of the regenerating tail, sparse blood vessels, and perichondrium of regenerating cartilage. The immunolocalization of ephrin receptors in muscle that gives rise to large portions of new tail tissue was correlated with their segmentation. This study suggests that the high localization of ephrin receptors in differentiating epidermis, ependyma, muscle, and cartilaginous cells is connected to the regulation of cell proliferation through the activation of programs for cell differentiation in the proximal regions of the regenerating tail. The lower immunolabelling of ephrin receptors in the apical blastema, where signaling proteins stimulating cell proliferation are instead present, helps maintain the continuous growth of this region.

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The present immunohistochemical and western blotting study evaluates the localization of a proto‐cadherin which gene is overexpressed in the regenerating blastema of the lizard Podarcis muralis. Bioinformatic analysis suggests that the antibody recognizes FAT1/2 proteins. Western blot indicates a main band around 50 kDa, a likely fragment derived from the original membrane‐bound large protein. Immunofluorescence shows main labelling in differentiating wound keratinocytes, lower in ependyma, mesenchyme and extracellular matrix of the blastema. The apical epidermal peg contains keratinocytes with labelled peripheral cytoplasm, as confirmed using ultrastructural immunogold that also reveals most labelling located along the cell surface of mesenchymal cells. Myoblasts and differentiating myotubes of regenerating muscles are less intensely labelled. The regenerating cartilaginous tube contains sparse labelled chondroblasts, especially in external and internal perichondria. In regenerating scales, differentiating beta‐cells appear immunofluorescent mainly along the cell perimeter. In more differentiated muscle, cartilage and connective tissues of the new tail, the labelling lowers or disappears. The observations indicate that FAT1/2 proto‐cadherins are present in the apical blastema where an intense remodelling takes place for the growth of the new tail but where also a tight control of cell division and migration is active and may regulate potential tumorigenic process.

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The microscopic details of the failure of digit regeneration in lizards are not known. The present study reports some histological, ultrastructural and 5BrdU-immunohistochemical observations on healing digits after amputation in the lizard Podarcis muralis. At 7-12 days post-amputation, the stump of digits forms a multilayered wound epidermis covering a loose connective tissue that is invaded by granulocytes, macrophages and lymphocytes. In addition to macrophages also electron-pale multinuclear giant cells are seen underneath or penetrating the wound epidermis while osteoclasts are present in the degrading bone of the severed phalanges. Granulocytes and macrophages invading the wound epidermis indicate the formation of an intra-epidermal immune barrier beneath the scab where numerous bacteria remain entrapped. Immunofluorescence for 5BrdU reveals that few proliferating cells are present in the wound epidermis and the underlying connective tissue at 12 and 32 days post-amputation. Outgrowths of less than 1 mm stop growing and at 32 days they appear scaling. Most of connective cells give rise to fibrocytes and large irregular collagen bundles, as is typical for scar tissue. In conclusion, like for the amputated limb, the intense inflammatory reaction and scarring here described after digit loss appears associated with immune cells invasion.

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Background The regenerating blastema of the tail in the lizard Podarcis muralis contains numerous macrophages among the prevalent mesenchymal cells. Some macrophages are phagocytic but others are devoid of phagosomes suggesting that they have other roles aside phagocytosis. Methods The presence of healing macrophages (M2-like) has been tested using autoradiographic, immunohistochemical and ultrastructural studies. Results Autoradiography shows an uptake of tritiated arginine in sparse cells of the blastema and in the regenerating epidermis. Bioinformatics analysis suggests that epitopes for arginase-1 and -2, recognized by the employed antibody, are present in lizards. Immunofluorescence shows sparse arginase immunopositive macrophages in the blastema and few macrophages also in the apical wound epidermis. The ultrastructural study shows that macrophages contain dense secretory granules, most likely inactive lysosomes, and small cytoplasmic pale vesicles. Some of the small vesicles are arginase-positive while immunolabeling is very diffuse in the macrophage cytoplasm. Conclusions The presence of cells incorporating arginine and of arginase 1-positive cells suggests that M2-like macrophages are present among mesenchymal and epidermal cells of the regenerative tail blastema. M2-like macrophages may promote tail regeneration differently from the numerous pro-inflammatory macrophages previously detected in the scarring limb. The presence of M2-like macrophages in addition to hyaluronate, support the hypothesis that the regenerative blastema of the tail in lizards is an immuno-privileged organ where cell proliferation and growth occur without degenerating in a tumorigenic outgrowth.

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Microscopy suggests that glutathione S-transferase is stored in large granules of myeloid cells in bone marrow and sparse granulocytes of the regenerating tail of lizard. Acta Zoologica (Stockolm). Tail regeneration in lizards occurs after an immune-privileged blastema and is formed where various immunosuppressive cells and biomolecules keep inflammation low. Molecules that limit inflammation may include glutathione and glutathione S-transferase (GST). These molecules reduce reactive oxidative species (ROS) and detoxify extraneous molecules. In the present study, the presence of GST has been analysed in the early phases of tail regeneration in the lizard Podarcis muralis. Using a rabbit polyclonal antibody directed against epitopes present in GST of P. muralis, a light and electron microscopy immunohistochemical and Western blotting study has been done. The study detected proteins of 25 and 32 kDa in pale-medium electron-dense and large granules present in promyelocytes and myelocytes of likely basophilic or eosinophilic fate that is present in the bone marrow of tail vertebrae. These cells are still proliferating and give rise to basophilic or eosinophilic granulocytes that also migrate into the regenerating tail. The enzyme stored in granules of promyelocytes and myelocytes is also localized in the cytoplasm of granulocytes present in the regenerating blastema-cone, basophilic or/and eosinophilic. It is suggested that these granulocytes in the blastema reduce ROS and detoxify potentially inflammatory metabolites, contributing with other molecules to limit inflammation and favour regeneration.

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Immunolocalization of cell adhesion molecules during tail regeneration in the lizard Podarcis muralis indicates coordinated control of epithelial differentiation. Acta Zoologica (Stockolm). Lizard epidermis is formed by alternating layers of hard corneous beta-layers and softer and pliable alpha-layers. After tail amputation in the lizard Podarcis muralis, the tail regenerates within a month forming neogenic scales. The differentiation of beta- and alpha-layers in the epidermis has been studied by immunofluorescence detection of cell adhesion molecules. Initially, the thick wound epidermis shows high content in L-CAM and N-CAM in comparison with normal epidermis, including pre-corneous layers where labelling is intense in the cytoplasm and along the keratinocyte perimeter. L- and N-CAMs are also observed in the regenerating ependyma and N-CAM in mesenchymal cells of blastema. The apical regenerating (wound) epidermis often shows nuclear localization in basal layers, especially for E-cadherin, perhaps indicating epithelial–mesenchymal transition. Sections of regenerating scales show the typical renewal phase of the epidermis, with an intensification of L-CAM, N-CAM and general cadherin immunofluorescence in the forming clear-Oberhautchen layers, and in the following beta- and alpha-layers as they start to differentiate from the basal layer. A higher immunolabelling for cell adhesion cadherins suggests that these proteins contribute to form an integrated epidermal unit along the regenerating scales that allows the ordered stratification and shedding of these layers in lizard epidermis.

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Background The presence of white blood inflammatory cells in injured tissues and their effect on the process of organ regeneration in lizards has been assessed on tail, limb and digits. Methods The present immunohistochemical survey analyzes the occurrence of CD68-labeled cells in lizard organs uncapable of regenerating tissues that exhibit strong inflammatory activity. Results This marker mainly identifies macrophages and mast cells present in large number within tissues of injured limbs and digits. Also a high inflammation is associated with amputated tails that do not regenerate, derived from cauterization or infection of tissues of the tail stump. In the healing limbs and fingers at 12–20 days post-amputation, numerous CD68-labeled cells, most likely macrophages, are seen among superficial connective tissues and injured muscles and bones. These cells likely stimulate and give rise to scarring tissues and no regeneration of limb and fingers occurs. In the cauterized or in the infected tail stump a strong accumulation of CD68-positive mast cells and macrophages is observed, where they likely evoke epidermal coagulation, formation of scarring connective tissue, and loss of regeneration. Conclusions The present observations provide further cytological evidence that support the notion that a strong and lasting inflammatory condition impedes organ regeneration in specifically lizards and, more generally other vertebrates as well.

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Tail regeneration in lizards is an outstanding and unique postembryonic morphogenetic process. This developmental process is regulated by poorly known factors, but recent studies have suggested that it derives from a balanced activity between oncoproteins and tumor suppressors. Transcriptome and expression data have indicated that arhgap28 and retinoblastoma proteins are among the main tumor suppressors activated during tail regeneration. However, their cellular localization is not known. Therefore, in the present immunohistochemical study, two proteins have been detected in various tissues at the beginning of their differentiation. Both proteins are present especially in the new scales, axial cartilage, and muscle bundles of the regenerating tail, the main tissues forming the new tail. Sparse or occasionally labeled cells are observed in the blastema, but intense labeling is seen in the basal layers of the wound (regenerating) epidermis and in external differentiating epidermal layers. Numerous keratinocytes also show a nuclear localization for both proteins, suggesting that the latter may activate a gene program for tissue differentiation after the inhibition of cell multiplication. Based on microscopic, molecular, experimental, and in vitro studies, a hypothesis on the “inhibition of contact” among the apical cells of the blastema and those of proximal differentiating tissues is proposed to explain the permanence of an active blastema only at the apex of the regenerating tail without tail growth can degenerate into a tumorigenic outgrowth.

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Immunolabelling for RhoV and actin in early regenerating tail of the lizard Podarcis muralis suggests involvement in epithelial and mesenchymal cell motility. Acta Zoologica, Stockolm. Immunolabelling for RhoV and α‐smooth muscle actin, genes that are highly expressed in the regenerating tail of lizards, shows that a main protein band immunolabelled for RhoV is seen at 65–70 kDa and only a weak band at 22–24 kDa. This suggests that alteration occurred during extraction or is due to biochemical processing of the protein. RhoV immunolabelled cells are present in apical and proximal regenerating epidermis during scale neogenesis. The apical ependyma is labelled but labelling fades and disappears in medial‐proximal regions, near the original spinal cord. Differentiating muscles and cartilage show low labelling. Ultrastructural immunolocalization of RhoV in wound keratinocytes shows labelling in regions containing actin filaments that associate with tonofilaments and desmosomes while a low labelling is present in mesenchymal cells. Filamentous regions of the nucleus, nuclear membrane and the nucleolus are immune‐labelled for RhoV. Similar localization is seen for actin that is present along the perimeters of keratinocytes associated with tonofilaments, in elongations of mesenchymal cells, in muscle satellite cells, endothelial and pericytes of blood vessels. It is suggested that RhoV and actin are associated in the dynamic cytoskeleton needed for the movements of epidermal and mesenchymal cells and in endothelial cells forming new blood vessels.

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The distribution of three anti-cytokeratin (-keratin) antibodies (AE1, AE2, AE3) in the epidermis of a lizard has been studied by immunocytochemistry at light and electron microscope and by immunoblot analysis. This study shows the expression of different keratins in the resting stage epidermis of the lizard Podarcis sicula. In this stage the epidermis has an external -layer, an underlying -layer, some layers of living suprabasal cells and a basal stratum germinativum. The AE1 antibody is localized in the basal and suprabasal cells only in the outer scale surface, but is absent from the inner surface, the hinge region and from the keratinized - and -layers. The AE2 antibody is mainly localized at the level of the hinge region and of the -layer and gives a lower reaction in the -layer. The AE3 antibody is mainly localized in basal and suprabasal cells, lower in the -layer, and absent from the -layer. The electron microscope shows that all the three antibodies immunolabel cytoplasmic fibrillar structures in the deep -layers and that AE2 and AE3 antibodies label small electron-dense areas in the external dense -layer within the electron-lucid matrix. Immunoblot analysis of the keratins extracted and separated by gel electrophoresis demonstrates the presence of a band of high molecular weight (67-68 kDa) positive to all three antibodies. In addition AE1 antibody recognizes a 44-45 kDa band and a 57-58 kDa band, AE2 recognizes a 60-61 kDa band, and AE3 recognizes a 47 kDa and a 56-57 kDa band. The localization of the keratins identified by immunoblot analysis in the epithelial layers is discussed taking in account the immunolabeling at light and electron microscope. The present study suggests that also in the normal epidermis of this reptiles, in both the - and the -layer, the molecular masses of keratins increase from the basal to the keratinized layers, a phenomenon which is generalized to adult and embryonic amniotes epidermis.

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Using immunocytochemistry at light- and electron-microscope levels, we studied the distribution of three monoclonal antibodies (AE1, AE2, AE3) specific for mammalian α-keratins in regenerating lizard epidermis. We also characterized the keratins expressed during this process by immunoblotting after electrophoretic separation. The AE1 antibody is localized in the basal and suprabasal layers of prescaling and scaling epidermis. During the first stages of scale neogenesis, the AE1 antibody also marks the differentiating oberhautchen and β-layer, but it disappears from these layers as they mature. This antibody does not stain the prekeratinized and keratinized outermost layers in the hinge region. The AE2 antibody labels the superficial wound epidermis, prekeratinizing and keratinized β- and α-layers, but not basal and suprabasal cells. The AE3 antibody labels all living and keratinized epidermal layers, although AE3 immunoreactivity decreases and disappears as the β-layer matures. The ultrastructural study shows that the AE2 and AE3, but not the AE1, antibodies specifically label small electron-dense areas within the β-layer, suggesting retention of α-keratins. In the stages of tail regeneration examined, immunoblotting with the three antibodies used for the immunolocalization gives a pattern similar to that of the normal epidermis, except distally, where the process of scale differentiation begins. In this region, in addition to the keratin forms discovered in the normal and in proximal regenerating epidermis, an intense low molecular weight band at 40–41 kDa, positive to all three antibodies, is clearly detectable. Furthermore, in the distal region AE1 and AE3 antibodies, but not the AE2, recognize a weak band at 77–78 kDa not present in the normal and proximal epidermis. The localization and the possible role of the different keratins in the regenerating epidermis is discussed.

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During the regeneration of lizard tail, nerves sprouting from ganglia and the spinal cord invade the blastema as far as the apical epidermis. Electron microscopical observations reveal axons storing dense granules (dg) and dense core vesicles (dcv) which are concentrated in nerve terminals or in axoplasmatic regions. In the regenerating spinal cord (SC) these terminals resemble aminergic-peptidergic endings and grow as far as the distal portion of the SC, which is made up of irregularly arranged ependymal cells. Some axons storing dcv contact blastematic cells and other nerve terminals show a plasma membrane incomplete or broken. Whether this latter aspect is due to fixation artifacts or physiological rupture is unknown. Nerves containing dcv and a few dg also originate from spinal ganglia innervating the regenerating tail. The accumulation of material into these endings is probably slow and a possible trophic influence on the regeneration of lizard tail is discussed.

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Vorarbeiten über Schädlingsfauna der Kriehtieren (Reptilien) in der Türkei -- Die Kriehtiere leben meistens auf dem Lande. Viele sind Insektenfresser. Zahlreiche Arten nehmen tierische und pflanzliche, oder ausschliesslich pflanzliche Nahrung zu sich. Ihre wirtschaftliche Schäden an Kulturpflanzen sind gelegentlich. Die besonderen Arten von Pflanzenschädlingen, die in der Türkei leben, sind noch nicht genugend untersucht. Darüber findet man heute sehr wenige und nur zerstreute Veröffentlichungen und Beobachtungen in der Hand. In dieser Vorarbeit sind die bisheute bekannten pflanzenschädliche Arten von Kriehtieren bzw. Eidechsen und Schildkröten, in ihren Verbreitungsgebieten und ihre Nährpflanzen zum erstenmale zusammengestellt. Selbstverstândlioh sind darüber weitere und vertiefte Beobachtungen erforderlich. -- Die Arten der Eidechsen: Agama stellio L. (Schleuderschwanz). Verbreitung: Anatolien, Ankara (Ebner 1919, Kerville 1939). Nährpflanzen: Die süssen Früchten wie Feigen, Pfirsiche, Zuckermelonen, und andere Früohte, Salate, Lattichsalate.,- Agama stellio stellio L. Verbreitung: Süd - und west Türkei, Amasya, Nigde, Diyarbakir, Kayseri, Çanakkale (Bodenheimer 1946 und andere). Nährpflanzen: Wie bei Agama stellio L. -- Agama ruderata Oliv. (Ankara, Kerville 1939), Agama ruderata ruderata Oliv. Ankara, Eregli (Konya), Mardin, Nusaybin, Gaziantep und Malatya (Bodenheimer 1946), Eine Probe in Eregli (Konya) wurde vom Verfasser gefunden. Nährpflanzen: Noch nicht festgestellt, vielleicht wie bei Agama stellio L. -- Lacerta viridis Laur. var. major D. und B. (Srnaragdeidechse). Verbreitung: Westanatolien, andere Fundorte sind nicht bekannt. Nährpflanzen: Weintrauben, Feigen, Kirchen und andere süsse Früchten. Note: Noch mehrere Lacerta Arten wurden in der Türkei gefunden, ob sie pflanzliche Nahrung zu sich nehmen oder nicht, ist unklar. -- Die Arten der Schildkröten. Testudo graeca L. (Grichische Schildkröte). Verbreitung: Fast in allen Geblieten der Türkei. Nährpflanzen: Steppenpflanzen, junges Getreide - Baumwolle -Luzerne - Pflanzen, Gemüsen, Weintrauben, Blätter und Juruge Triebe von vielen jungen Pflanzen. -- Emys orbicularis L. (Surnpf-oder Europäische Schildkröte). Verbreuitung: Ankara (Kerville 1939), Manisa, Bursa, Kayseri, Eski¬sehir, Adapazari, Turhal (Bodenheimer 1946 und andere). Nährpflanzen: Wedntrauben, Zucker-und Wassermelonen. - Note: Noch andere Arten der Schâldknöten leben auch in der Türkei, aber ihre Nahrung ist nicht bekannt.

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Over the years, the terminology in regards to the abnormal coloration of reptiles and amphibians hasbecome more complex with not all authors agreeing on the same terms. This, combined with the diversity of chromatic abnormalities, has led to some confusion, particularly between hobbyists and biologists who tend to use different jargon. In this review, we aim to address this issue by explaining how color within the skin of amphibians and reptiles arises, and evaluating which terminology should be used. This information is then used to explore each of the known chromatic abnormalities observed in amphibians and reptiles before summarizing the known cases from the British Isles. Finally, we also present a number of previously unrecorded instances of color abnormalities in the hope that it promotes further examples to be recorded. Given their rarity in nature, color abnormalities are likely to have a significant impact on the fitness of animals displaying them. Despite our efforts to summarize all the available information on color abnormalities in the herpetofauna of the British Isles, there are still gaps in our knowledge. These could be filled through the effort of a national recording scheme aimed at abnormally colored individuals.

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In the present study, it was hypothesized that micromorphology of the surface of many lizard scales appears to mimic the topography of the habitat in which they live. Many authors have suggested that the microstructure of the superficial surface of scales have undergone important adaptations and have functional value in lizards. In this study, we investigated the variation and adaptation of the micromorphology and microstructure of the superficial surface of the dorsal and ventral scales from the mid-body region of Stellagama stellio (Agamidae), Stenodactylus petrii (Gekkonidae), Acanthodactylus boskianus (Lacertidae), Eumeces schneideri (Scincidae), Trachylepis quinquetaeniata (Scincidae), Scincus scincus (Scincidae), Varanus griseus (Varanidae), Chameleo chameleon (Chamaeleonidae). Skin specimens were prepared and analyzed using scanning electron microscopy. The dorsal and ventral scale surfaces had microstructure in the studied species and they exhibited unique patterns that somewhat resembled the topography of the microhabitats in which they lived. Similarity was detected in the three most related species, those having a common family, Scincidae. Ecomorphological relationships were detected between the dorsal and ventral scale microstructures and microhabitats. We conclude that environmental factors have observable influences on the microstructure of lizard scales.

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Introduced species represent one of the greatest potential threats to persistence of native species. Therefore, it is important to understand the ecology of introduced species in order to develop appropriate mitigation strategies if required. In this study, using data collected in 1992-1993, we describe some fundamental population attributes of common wall lizards, Podarcis muralis (Laurenti, 1768), of Italian origin, introduced near Victoria, British Columbia, in the early 1970s. Male and female wall lizards reached similar snout-vent lengths, but males had relatively longer tails and were heavier. However, when gravid, females attained a body mass similar to that of males of equal snout-vent length. We found gravid females in all months from May to July, inclusive, but hatchlings did not appear in the field before late July. Growth rate was inversely related to body size, and lizards probably reached maturity in their second full summer. Larger lizards were moiré likely than smaller lizards to have experienced tail loss prior to capture, but the probability of tail loss upon capture was higher for smaller lizards than for adults. Our results suggest no fundamental differences in population characteristics between P. muralis on southern Vancouver Island and population at sites within the species natural range in Europe. Whether P. muralis on Vancouver Island is a threat to the native northern alligator lizard, Elgaria coerulea (Wiegmann, 1828), remains an open question.

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Die landgebundenen Wirbeltiere des festländischen Iberiens (Süßwasserfische, Amphibien, Reptilien mit Ausnahme der Meeresschildkröten, Säugetiere mit Ausnahme der Chiroptera, Pinnipedia und Cetacea) bilden, wie im einzelnen gezeigt wird, in ihrer Gesamtheit eine besondere faunistische Einheit: ungefähr die Hälfte der Formen (Spezies oder Subspezies) ist endemisch; das gilt für 73 % der echten Süßwasserfische, 47 % der Amphibien, 36 % der Reptilien und 53 % der Säugetiere. Die geographische Isolierung durch die Pyrenäen und das Mittelmeer ist gewiß die Hauptursache für die Entwicklung einer so eigenartigen Fauna, aber auch andere Faktoren (die sehr verschiedenen Klimate und Biotope innerhalb Iberiens, der im Vergleich mit anderen Gebieten Europas geringere Einfluß der Vereisungen usw. haben sicher ebenfalls eine sehr wichtige Rolle gespielt. Acanthodactylus erythrurus erythrurus, Algyroides hidalgoi, Algyroides marchi marchi, Algyroides marchi niethammeri, Lacerta agilis agilis, Lacerta hispanica hispanica, Lacerta hispanica bocagei, Lacerta hispanica vaucheri, Lacerta lepida lepida, Lacerta lepida nevadensis, Lacerta monticola monticola, Lacerta monticola cantabrica, Lacerta monticola cyreni, Lacerta schreiberi, Lacerta viridis viridis, Lacerta vivipara, Psammodromus algirus algirus, Psammodromus hispanicus hispanicus, Psammodromus hispanicus edwardsianus.

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The genetic structure and relationships of five populations of the Iberian group of Iberolacerta (sensuArribas 1999) were analysed by protein electrophoresis. In this study we confirmed the differentiation between the group of populations from Galicia/Cantabrian/S. Estrela versus the group of populations from de Spanish Central System, Gredos and Guadarrama that are included in the two different species by Arribas (Herpetozoa 9(1/2), 31–56, 1996; Russian J. Herpetol. 6, 1–22, 1999), Iberolacerta (I.) monticola and Iberolacerta (I.) cyreni, respectively. However, the differentiation level is not high enough to clearly prove their specific discrimination. On the other hand, we did not confirm the subspecific discrimination of the Gredos –Iberolacerta (I.) cyreni castiliana, and Guadarrama –Iberolacerta (I.) cyreni cyreni populations, proposed by Arribas (1996). These two populations are genetically almost homogeneous. Interestingly, we found an unexpected high genetic similarity between the Galician and the Serra da Estrela populations, presently included into two different subspecies, Iberolacerta (I.) monticola cantabrica and Iberolacerta (I.) monticola monticola, respectively. Their genetic similarity is even higher than that between the populations of Galicia and the Cantabrian Mountains, which are both included in the same subspecies, cantabrica. This result suggests that the populations of Galicia and Serra da Estrela would have maintained contacts, possibly through the north of Portugal, until relatively recent times. Their separation is thus probably post-glacial. Some evidence also points to the existence of relatively recent contacts between the population of Serra da Estrela and those of the Central System, particularly, with the neighbouring Peña de Francia population. With the cautions imposed by the reduced sample size of our analysis, the significant differentiation of the populations from Galicia and the Cantabrian Mountains allow us to suggest that this last population may not be the result of a recent expansion of the Galician population as Arribas (1996) suggests, but, more likely, the result of a fragmentation process of a more ancient and wider north-eastern distribution area of this group of rock-lizards.

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The Arabian Peninsula is an interesting area for research. This area has a complex geological history, a range of habitats and a number of known endemic species. However, to date, this area and its associated biodiversity has been poorly studied. The aims of this study were to investigate the phylogeography and to determine the species delimitation of a selected number of lizard species from the Arabian Peninsula. The phylogeography of fourteen co-distributed lizard species occurring within the Arabian Peninsula was investigated using a multispecies tree in STAR BEAST (*BEAST) to determine the divergence times and spatial patterns of the co-distributed species. Several common spatial and temporal patterns were identified among the different Arabian Peninsula species. The common patterns indicated close phylogeographic relationships between different regions and species. Importantly, these common patterns also corresponded to historical biogeographic processes. A wide range of ecological habitats was also detected for these groups of lizards and this was assumed to play a major role in establishing the current diversity and distribution patterns. In addition to detecting common patterns, this study also provided valuable information about the unique phylogeographical patterns shown by some of the studied species. Finally, this study also revealed patterns that provided strong evidence for the presence of multiple cryptic species within a species complex. Species delimitation methods were subsequently applied to two species that had previously demonstrated the potential for cryptic species within Acanthodactylus boskianus and A. opheodurus. Using a combined approach of genetic distance, allele networks, and Bayesian Phylogenetic and Phylogeography (BPP) analysis, this study was able to identify candidate species within A. boskianus and A. opheodurus. The mitochondrial DNA tree revealed potential candidate clades within these two species. These candidate species clades were then further examined at two nuclear loci and congruence was observed between the two markers for these clades. This congruence between mitochondrial and nuclear loci strongly indicates the discovery of several new species within A. boskianus and A. opheodurus, however further research is needed to confirm this discovery. In conclusion, this study provides the most detailed insight - to date - on the phylogeography and species delimitation of Arabian Peninsula lizards and provides the most up to date assessment of the diversity of the lizards in this important region.

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Soricid mammals and lizards are small-sized, insectivorous vertebrates that are widespread and abundant in Mediterranean habitats. Because of their broad sympatry and their diet similarity, these taxa have been suspected to compete for food. Therefore, co-occurrence patterns between these taxa were studied at 72 sites in southern Italy by means of trapping methods. The assemblages were quite distinct depending on the site bioclimate: for the Lacertidae, Podarcis siculus dominated in the thermo-Mediterranean sites and P. muralisin the temperate sites, whereas, for the soricids, Suncus etruscusand two species of Crocidurawere dominant in thermo-Mediterranean sites and three Sorexspecies in the temperate sites. The mean number of captured soricids was statistically higher in the temperate sites, and was positively related to the first component of a Principal Component Analysis summarizing three collinear study site variables (elevation, mean annual temperature, annual rainfall), the reverse being true for lizards. Co-occurrence analysis revealed that a non-segregated structure was present in the dataset, whereas a randomization algorithm showed that the assemblage of small mammals and lizards was non-randomly structured, with the frequency distribution of shrews being non-independent by site from that of lizards. However, when we divided the sites by their bioclimatic regime (thermo-Mediterranean versus temperate), the non-randomness of the community structure disappeared, thus demonstrating that interspecific competition was not the main force driving these assemblages of species. The number of shrews captured in each sampling site was however significantly negatively related to the number of lizards, this pattern being linked to the bioclimate of the various sampling sites. Overall, our data indicated that the assemblage of shrews and lizards was likely regulated essentially by local climate and not by synecological (interspecific competition) dynamics.

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Poikilothermic animals show a strong dependence on environmental temperature. However, they are able to adjust their body temperature through behavioral and partial physiological thermoregulatory adjustments. In this way, they optimize the heat loss and gains to keep the body within a range of thermal preference and to allow maximizing their physiological efficiency. A group of Gallotia galloti lizards were placed in a terrarium with a wide thermal variation in different regions. In this way, the animals were able to select the most thermally comfortable region. However, they should leave this region to get food, which was placed in a cold region, with a temperature far away from the comfort temperature. The time-lapse thermographic cinematography recordings allowed recording the environmental and body temperatures as well as the variations in different parts of the animal body in function to the temperature of the environment. In this way, it was found that the cephalic temperature was maintained within the 33 – 37 range in spite of occasional visits, the coldest spot in the terrarium at 13ºC to get food. Most frequently, the animals preferred to stay in 25-30ºC regions, while maintaining a cephalic temperature of up to 10ºC higher.

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Thirty-two species of amphibians and reptiles were reported during this study, including 16 families (Ranidae, Geoemydidae, Cheloniidae, Gekkonidae, Sphaerodactylidae, Phyllodactylidae, Agamidae, Lacertidae, Scincidae, Varanidae, Trogonophidae, Boidae, Colubridae, Psammophiidae, Viperidae and Elapidae). Family Geckkonidae was represented by the highest number of species (8), followed by families Agamidae and Scincidae (four species for each). Trachylepis tessellata is reported for the first time to the herpetofauna of Saudi Arabia.

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A total of 34 species of amphibians and reptiles are reported from Tabuk Province, Saudi Arabia. They include one species of amphibian and 33 reptiles belonging to 12 families (cheloniidae, Gekkonidae, Agamidae, chamaeleonidae, lacertidae, Scincidae, Varanidae, Trogonophidae, Boidae, colubridae, Viperidae and elapidae). Three species of reptiles are new to the herpetofauna of Saudi Arabia: Hemidactylus mendiae, Pseudotrapelus aqabensis and Phoenicolacerta kulzeri ssp.. Additional distributional data for the reptiles of the Province of Tabuk expand the known distribution for several Arabian species.

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A total of 44 species of amphibians and reptiles are reported from Al Madinah Al Munawwarah Province, Saudi Arabia. They include two species of amphibian in two families (Bufonidae and Dicroglossidae) and 42 reptiles belonging to 16 families (Agamidae, Boidae, Chamaeleonidae, Colubridae, Elapidae, Gekkonidae, Lacertidae, Lamprophiidae, Leptotyphlopidae, Phyllodactylidae, Psammophiidae, Scincidae, Sphaerodactylidae, Varanidae, Typhlopidae, and Viperidae). Platyceps sinai, Psammophis sibilans, Rhynchocalamus melanocephalus, are recorded for the first time to the herpetofauna of Saudi Arabia. Range expansion for Euphlyctis ehrenbergii and Acanthocercus adramitanus to northern Saudi Arabia is reported. Our records expand the known distribution range of the Arabian Cobra, Naja arabica, further northwest

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Seventeen (17) and twenty-two (22) species of terrestrial reptiles were recorded from ‘Uruq Bani Ma’arid and Harat al Harrah protected areas, respectively. Eight sites in ‘Uruq Bani Ma’arid and eleven sites in Harat al Harrah were surveyed for the presence of reptiles. A comparison between the two protected areas’ reptile fauna is provided, with brief descriptions of their habitat preferences. Uromastyx aegyptia, categorised by the IUCN Red List as Vulnerable, occurs in both protected areas. Ptyodactylus puiseuxi is a new species record for the herpetofauna of Saudi Arabia. This study indicates the importance of protected areas within Saudi Arabia for the conservation of reptile biodiversity, the need for extension of the protected area network and additional biodiversity surveys in other regions. Studies on species richness, biology and population size for endangered species should be a priority for future studies.

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Anatolacerta has included 3 species and one of them is Anatololacerta anatolica (Werner 1900). This species has two distinct subspecies respectively; Anatololacerta anatolica anatolica and Anatololacerta anatolica aegaea (Eiselt and Schmidtler 1987). The systematic of Anatololacerta based on morphology and which is included species has not been studied karyotypically. Therefore we aimed to report the karyotype of specimens and obtained differences from 4 different populations of Anatololacerta anatolica subspecies which is distributed in Western Anatolia. The result showed that two subspecies possess 2N = 38 uniarmed (subtelocentric) chromosomes that is 36 macrochromosomes and 2 microchromosomes.Also meiotic plates showed that 19 bilavents.

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Tathleeth governorate in Aseer region of southwestern Saudi Arabia has been surveyed for 22 lizard species belonging to 6 families throughout three years started from 2015. A total of 412 specimens of these lizards were encountered and identified. Gekkonidae represented the major family inhabiting the region comprising more than 50% of the collected lizards. Agamidae was represented by 5 species comprising more than 23% of the recorded lizards. The other four families (Lacertidae, Scincidae, Chamaeleonidae and Varanidae) comprised approximately 20% of all the collected lizards. The current survey could be used as conservational clue for the herpetofauna of Tathleeth.

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We surveyed the historical Faid Hema, Ha’il region in Saudi Arabia and identified 22 species of reptiles (17 lizards and five snakes). We recorded for the first time nine reptiles (six lizards and three snakes) in the Faid Hema. Of these, one lizard, Mesalina adramitana, and two snakes, Cerastes gasperetti and Walterinessia aegyptia, were reported for the first time for the entire Ha`il region. We recorded 50% of all species for the entire study area at one site, which may be because it had three different habitat types near it (the Jannin mountain, soft soil, and firm, sandy soil). The next highest number of species we found was at an open site with firm, sandy soils and with gravel (containing 45.5% of the total species recorded), followed by a site that contained only sand (36.4% of the total). The lowest number of species was reported at an agricultural site, with only 13.6% of the total species found.

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There are three types of cells in the vomero-nasal organ of Lacerta sicula and Natrix natrix: receptor cells, supporting cells and basal cells. The receptor cells bear microvilli and no cilia. In Lacerta centrioles are lacking, indicating that the ciliary apparatus can have no essential significance in the transducer process. In Natrix centrioles occur in the deeper dendritic region. The structural constituents of the dendrites are mitochondria, microtubules and characteristic vesicles the properties of which are described. The perikarya which have uniform structure send off axons of about 0.2 μ diameter. The supporting cells show signs of a very moderate secretory activity, which is different among the species investigated. The microvilli of the supporting cells are not distinguishable from those of the receptor cells. The dendrites of the latter are completely isolated by the apical parts of the supporting cells. The sheet-like processes of the supporting cells contain strands of tonofilaments and do not cover the perikarya of the receptor cells completely. Thus adjacent sensory cells or dendrites and sensory cells are separated among themselves only by the normal intercellular space. The ratio of sensory cells to supporting cells is about 7∶1. The basal cells resemble the supporting cells and replace these in the lower portion of the epithelium. The typical cellular junctions between sensory cells and supporting cells are described. There are no true tight junctions in the vomero-nasal sensory epithelium, and they are most probably absent from the nasal mucosa too. This absence would seem to indicate special conditions for cellular communication and the accessibility of the intercellular space for certain molecules. There is no sign of regeneration of sensory cells. Both immature blastema cells and degenerating receptor cells are not discernible.

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We studied, for the first time, the age structure of Eremias strauchi strauchi (Kessler, 1878) from a sample (18 adults) of a population living in the vicinity of Iğdır (eastern Turkey) using the skeletochronological method. The maximum observed longevity was 7 years for males and 5 years for females. The age of males ranged from 4 to 7 years (mean 4.91, n = 12), while that of females ranged from 4 to 5 years (mean 4.66, n = 6). The average snout–vent length (SVL) was 61.10 mm in males and 60.82 mm in females. The differences in mean age and SVL between sexes were not statistically significant. Intersexual differences in body size were male-biased, but this state was not statistically significant. Age and SVL were positively correlated in both sexes.

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Knowing the age structure of endangered species is important in order to contribute to future conservation studies for such species. In this context, we investigated age structure, age at sexual maturity, potential reproductive lifespan and longevity in a population of the Charnali lizard, Darevskia dryada, an endangered species from Turkey. The results show that the Charnali lizard has a longer life span than other lizards of the genus Darevskia that live in the same region. We estimated that these lizards attain their sexual maturity at the age of one or two years and the potential reproductive life span for males and females is six and five years, respectively. As in many other lizards, the Charnali lizard exhibited a low-level male-biased sexual dimorphism in terms of increased size. We believe that this study, in which prior information related to the Charnali lizard is shared, will contribute to future conservation activities for this critically endangered species.

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We investigated age structure, age at sexual maturity, lifespan, growth and survival rate and adult life expectancy (as demographic life-history traits) as well as body size of two Darevskia derjugini (Artvin lizard) populations from different altitudes, using skeletochronology. Our findings indicated that age upon attaining sexual maturity was two or three years in the low-altitude population (Fındıklı) while it was three years in the high-altitude population (Murgul) for both sexes. The maximum longevity was seven years in the high-elevation site while it was six years in the low-elevation site. As reported for many lizards, we found a significant positive relationship between age and body size within each sex of Artvin lizard at both altitudes. High- and low-altitude populations did not differ in age structure, survival rates, adult life expectancy and body size. Rather than the effect of altitude, which is hard to compare without replication of other low and high altitude populations, the fact that these two populations have similar growth rates and the similarity of local conditions (food availability and predator density) may indicate similarity between the two regions.

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In this study, the age composition of a Podarcis tauricus population from Saros Bay (northwest Turkey) was determined by skeletochronology. 27 preserved adults (20 females ,5 males, 2 juveniles) were evaluated and the maximum observed lifespan was recorded to be 7 years in females and 6 years in males. The mean age was 5.2 ± 0.2 years in males and 5.0 ± 0.2 years in females; the mean snout-vent length (SVL) was 63.0 ± 0.7 mm (range: 60.4 – 64) in males and 61.3 ± 0.9 mm (range 52.4 – 68.5) in females. No significant differences were found between sexes in terms of body size, but the sexual dimorphism index (SDI), was determined as 0.03, indicating a weakly male-biased. Adult survival rate and adult life expectancy were estimated to be 0.51 and 2.54 for female individuals, respectively. The lizards reached sexual maturity between 2 and 3 years. No significant difference was found between the sexes in terms of age and head sizes. The age and SVL were correlated only in females. Additionally, a significant positive correlation was found among SVL, head length (HL), and width (HW) in females.

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The life history characteristics of individuals may vary depending on the altitude gradient. In this study, some life history traits such as age structure, age at sexual maturity, lifespan, body size, head length and head width were tested for two different altitude populations of Ophisops elegans. The results suggest that the individuals from the high altitude (Sivas, 1595 m) population have a higher mean body size and longer and wider head structure than the low-altitude (Çanakkale, 7 m) population. Although, the mean age of the highland population was higher than the lowland population, this case was not found statistically significant. In this study, both females and males were estimated to reach sexual maturity at an average of 3 years. The expected positive correlation between age and body size was recorded for only females of the Çanakkale population.

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Microplastics are a global environmental problem, polluting both aquatic and terrestrial environments. Terrestrial lizards are suitable model organisms to study human-induced pollution in these areas, as they can live in urbanized areas where microplastics are most abundant. Therefore, we analyzed the prevalence of microplastics (MPs) in a common Lacertid lizard, the snake-eyed lizard, Ophisops elegans. We detected MPs in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of 33 of 152 specimens from 18 populations. The detected MPs had six distinct polymer compositions, namely Polyethylene terephthalate, Polyacrylonitrile, Polypropylene, Polyethylene, Poly methyl methacrylate and Polyamide. The majority of these MPs were fiber-type and the dominant color was navy blue. The lengths of MPs varied from 37 to 563 µm, with an average length of 175 ?m. MPs were detected in the GITs of 43% of juveniles (n = 7), 30% of males (n = 105), and 18% of females (n = 40), with a mean of 0.27 per specimen. Furthermore, we found that microplastic densities varied with habitat distance from human settlements, supporting the theory that high levels of microplastic contamination are associated with extensiveanthropogenic activity.

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Determining the age of any species allows it to be analyzed from the ontogenetic, demographic, and ecological perspectives. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that the age structure of congener species (Lacerta media and Lacerta viridis) with the same ecological niche may vary in different areas. In this context, we applied skeletochronology method to reveal various demographic parameters, such as age structure, longevity, age at sexual maturity, growth rate, survival rate, adult life expectancy, and the relationship between age and body size in the green lizard, L. viridis, and the medium lizard, L. media. In L. media and L. viridis, the maximum lifespan was 10 and 8 years, respectively. The mean age and body size of females were significantly greater than those of males in L. media. However, in the examined L. viridis population, no appreciable variation in mean age or body size was found to exist between the sexes. It was estimated that the green lizards reach maturity at the age of 2 or 3 years. However, the L. media reached sexual maturity approximately 1 year later than the congener. The body size markedly increased with age in males for both studied populations. However, in females, body size positively increased with age only in L. media. The approach of skeletochronology that we utilized in this study to assess age structure makes it simple to gather a variety of time-dependent ecological data for such ectothermic species.

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The evolutionary role of fire in animals has been poorly explored. Reptiles use sensory cues, such as smell (chemoreception), to de tect threats and flee. In Mediterranean ecosystems, fire is a threat faced by reptiles. We hypothesized that the Mediterranean lizard Psammodromus algirus recognizes the threat of fire by detecting the smoke, which triggers a behavioral response that enhances sur vival in fire-prone ecosystems. We predicted that lizards from fire-prone ecosystems will be more sensitive to fire stimulus than those from ecosystems that rarely burn. We conducted a terrarium experiment in which lizards from habitats with contrasted fire regimes (fire-prone vs. non-fire-prone) were exposed to smoke versus control (false smoke) treatment. We found that, in populations from fire prone habitats, more lizards reacted to smoke, and their behavioral response was more intense than in lizard populations from non fire-prone habitats. Our results suggest that an enhanced response to smoke may be adaptive in lizards from fire-prone ecosystems as it increases the chance for survival. We provide evidence that fire is likely an evolutionary driver shaping behavioral traits in lizard populations exposed to frequent wildfires. Understanding ecological and evolutionary processes shaping animal populations is rele vant for species conservation in a changing fire regime world.

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Wildfires are a natural disturbance in many ecosystems. However, their effect on biotic interactions has been poorly studied. Fire consumes the vegetation and the litter layer where many parasites spend part of their life cycles. We hypothesize that wildfires reduce habitat availability for parasites with consequent potential benefits for hosts. We tested this for the lizard Psammodromus algirus and its ectoparasites in a Mediterranean ecosystem. We predicted that lizards in recently burned areas would have lower parasite load (cleaning effect) than those in unburned areas and that this phenomenon implies that lizards spending their entire lives in postfire conditions experience a lower level of parasitism than those living in unburned areas. We compared the ectoparasite load of lizards between eight paired burned/unburned sites, including recent (less than 1 year postfire) and older fires (2–4 years). We found that lizards` ectoparasites prevalence was drastically reduced in recently burned areas. Likewise, lizards in older burned areas showed less evidence of past parasitic infections. Fire disrupted the host–parasite interaction, providing the opportunity for lizards to avoid the negative effects of ectoparasites. Our results suggest that wildfires probably fulfil a role in controlling vector-borne diseases and pathogens, and highlight ecological effects of wildfires that have been overlooked.

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Studying the causes of parasite geographic distribution is relevant to understand ecological and evolutionary processes that affect host populations as well as for species conservation. Temperature is one of the most important environmental variables affecting parasite distribution, as raising temperatures positively affect development, reproduction, and rate of transmission of both endo- and ectoparasites. In this context, it is generally accepted that, in mountains, parasite abundance decreases with elevation. However, empirical evidence on this topic is limited. In the present study, we analysed the elevational variation of haemoparasites and ectoparasites of a lizard, Psammodromus algirus, along a 2200-m elevational gradient in Sierra Nevada (SE Spain). As predicted, ectoparasite (mites, ticks, mosquitoes, and sandflies) abundance decreased with elevation. However, haemoparasite prevalence and intensity in the lizard augmented with altitude, showing a pattern contrary to their vectors (mites). We suggest that tolerance to haemoparasites may increase with elevation as a consequence of lizards at high altitudes taking advantage of increased body condition and food availability, and reduced oxidative stress. Moreover, lizards could have been selected for higher resistance against haemoparasites at lowlands (where higher rates of replication are expected), thus reducing haemoparasite prevalence and load. Our findings imply that, in a scenario of climate warming, populations of lizards at high elevation may face increased abundance of ectoparasites, with accompanied strong negative effects.

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Lizard biology is strongly linked to the spatial structure of their environment, since lizards are sedentary and depend on habitat complexity for thermoregulation, hydroregulation and antipredator defence. Agricultural stone walls are their most commonly occupied habitats, providing them with food, shelter and thermoregulating surfaces. Management may affect microhabitat structure, with uniformized concrete walls and the trimming of surrounding vegetation leading to a reduction of the available shelter. Here we analyzed the daily activity patterns and microhabitat use of Podarcis bocagei wall lizards occupying agricultural walls. From May to July 2022, lizard surveys based on visual encounters were performed in corn (Zea mays) fields in Vairão, NW Portugal, following line transects along stone walls. Each observation included information on the lizard class (adult male, female or immature), time of day, height above ground, epiphytic vegetation and number of holes. Associations between the environmental variables were examined through a multiple correspondence analysis. Results show a tendency for different patterns of activity between the morning and afternoon periods, suggesting that lizards thermoregulate during the first hours of the day, avoid activity during the heat of midday, and forage in the afternoon. Immature individuals occupied more open sections of the wall, with small or no holes and sparce vegetation. Males and females show no difference in activity or preferred microhabitat structure. Lizards avoided sections with no vegetation, and were seldom observed at ground level. They were most often observed near smaller holes than larger holes, possibly avoiding these locations due to predation from larger predators such as Timon lepidus. Studies in nonpristine areas suggest guidelines on how reptiles may cope with humanized landscapes and, ultimately, provide clues on how agriculture practices and biodiversity conservation could be better harmonized.

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Icosahedral nucleo-cytoplasmic large DNA viruses (NCLDV)-like viruses, which form inclusions in the erythrocyte cytoplasm of reptiles, were previously presented as candidates for a new genus of the Iridoviridae family. The present work describes the distribution of infected lizard hosts and ultrastructural characteristics of the viral inclusions of NCLDV-like viruses from Portugal and adjacent locations in Spain. Giemsa-stained blood smears of 235 Lacerta schreiberi from Portugal and Spain, 571 Lacerta monticola from the mountain Serra da Estrela (Portugal), 794 Podarcis hispanica from several localities in Portugal and Spain, and 25 Lacerta dugesii from Madeira Island, were studied. Infection in L. schreiberi was only found in mountain populations, up to 30% in Serra da Estrela and 9–11% elsewhere. It was absent in lizards from lowlands. Prevalence of infection among L. monticola in Serra da Estrela was 10%; infected lizards were found during March to July and October but not in August and September. Infection in P. hispanica was below 3.3%. Only one infected specimen of L. dugesii was identified by light microscopy. Ultrastructural examination of infected samples revealed that the inclusions are virus assembly sites of icosahedral cytoplasmic iridovirus-like virions. Virions from different host species have different ultrastructural features and probably represent different related viruses.

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Lizard erythrocytic viruses ~LEVs! have previously been described in Lacerta monticola from Serra da Estrela, Portugal. Like other known erythrocytic viruses of heterothermic vertebrates, these viruses have never been adapted to cell cultures and remain uncharacterized at the molecular level. In this study, we made attempts to adapt the virus to cell cultures that resulted instead in the isolation of a previously undetected Ranavirus closely related to FV3. The Ranavirus was subsequently detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in the blood of infected lizards using primers for a conserved portion of the Ranavirus major capsid protein gene. Electron microscopic study of the new Ranavirus disclosed, among other features, the presence of intranuclear viruses that may be related to an unrecognized intranuclear morphogenetic process. Attempts to detect by PCR a portion of the DNA polymerase gene of the LEV in infected lizard blood were successful. The recovered sequence had 65.2/69.4% nt/aa% homology with a previously detected sequence from a snake erythrocytic virus from Florida, which is ultrastructurally different from the studied LEV. These results further support the hypothesis that erythrocytic viruses are related to one another and may represent a new group of nucleocytoplasmic large deoxyriboviruses.

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Eleven out of 42 (26.2%) lizards Acanthodactylus schmidti were found harboring haemogregarines in their peripheral blood. The erythrocytic stages were differentiated into 2 forms: the young form (trophozoite) measured 12.5 +/- 0.5 x 1.7 +/- 0.3 microm and the large mature form (gametocyte) measured 19.8 +/- 1.7 x 1.7 +/- 0.3 microm. The infected erythrocytes were distorted from 16.0 +/- 1.2 x 9.2 +/- 0.2 microm to 20.2 +/- 1.8 x 6.7 +/- 0.8 microm, hypertrophied and faintly stained. None of the leucocytes seemed to be parasitized by the present parasite. Schizogony took place in the endothelial cells of lung capillaries and parenchyma of liver. Two types of schizonts were recorded; microschizonts of 9.35 x 9.65 +/- 0.38 microm and macroschizonts of 25.36 +/-1.81 x 20.35 +/- 0.82 microm. The microschizonts produced 6-12 merozoites, while the macroschizonts produced 18-36 merozoites, however there were no differences between both merozoites, each measured 11.54 +/- 0.81 x 1.41 +/- 0.71 microm. The infected host cells were markedly hypertrophied with noticeable irregularity and faint stainability as well as some vacuolation, necrosis or shrinkage and necrosis.

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Es wurden zwei elektrophoretische Methoden zur genetischen Untersuchung der Smaragdeidechse Lacerta viridis durchgeführt. I. Die Polyacrylamid-Gel Elektrophorese erzielte folgende Ergebnisse. 1. Es trat eine bei allen Individuen homogene Albuminbande mit leichten, nicht spezifizierbaren Schwankungen auf. 2. Vier verschiedene Globulin-Loci ohne Variationen hinsichtlich des Geschlechts oder physiologischer Parameter konnten unterschieden werden. 3. Die Globuline traten in zwei typischen Formationen auf. Diese waren jeweils diagnostisch für Tiere aus Frankreich und Rheinoland-Pfalz, sowie für Tiere aus Brandenburg, Österreich, Ungarn und Euböa. Es konnte ein Ost- und ein Westtypus unterschieden werden. 4. Weder Transferrine noch Postalbumine ließen sich deutlich anfärben oder auswerten. II. Die Celluloseacetat-Gel Elektrophorese der Allozyme der zellulären Blutbedstandteile. 1. Von 37 Enzymen konnten 14 mit insgesamt 17 Loci untersucht werden. 2. Sechs der 17 Loci waren polymorph (35 %(. Diese waren: Acontinase, Peptidase-A, -B1, -B2, -D, 6-Phosphogluconat-Dehydrogenase. 3. Die beiden Allele der Aconitase waren diagnostisch für den West- und den Osttypus. 4, Bei den anderen polymorphen Peptidasen konnten typische Ost-West-Variationen erkannt werden. III. Es wurde eine nummerische Auswertung mit Hilfe von Computerprogrammen durchgeführt. 1. Die ermittelte Heterozygotie lag bei Werten zwischen 0.02 und 0.05. Die Heterozygotie-Werte der untersuchten Populationen mit weniger als 4 Individuen erschienen nicht representativ. 2. Die Heterozygotie der Populationen von Rhein und Brandenburg erreichte nur die Hälfte derjenigen aus Österreich. Dies wurde mit einer genetischen Verarmung durch Isolation und Inzucht gedeutet. 3. Die Berechnung der genetischen Distanzen erfolgte nach NEI (1970). 4. Innerhalb der Osttiere und Westtiere lagen die genetischen Distanzen mit Werten von 0.0 bis 0.04 sehr niedrig. Man kann daraus eine sehr langsame Mutationsgeschwindigkeit ableiten. 5. Bei den genetischen Distanzen ergaben sich zwischen den Populationen des Ost- und des Westtypus der Smaragdeidechsen Werte zwischen 0.354 und 0.38. Diese liegen etwa auf dem Niveau von Distanzen zwischen anderen Lacertiden-Arten. IV. Interpretation der Daten Die Ergebnisse dieser Untersuchung wurden zusammen mit Daten weiterer Arbeiten dahingehend gedeutet, daß es sich bei den Tieren aus dem westlichen Teil des Verbreitungsgebietes und denen aus dem östlichen Areal um zwei Arten handelt. Sie wurden als Lacerta bilineata (DAUDIN 1802) für den Westteil und Lacerta viridis (Laurenti 1768) für den Ostteil bezeichnet. Die vorliegenden Ergebnisse unterstützten die These, daß die Smaragdeidechse postglazial aus zwei verschiedenen Regugialräumen östlich und westlich der Alpen nach Norden vorgedrungen ist. Aufgrund der deutlichen Unterschiede zwischen den beiden deutschen Vorkommen kann anagenommen werden, daß sich die beiden Arten nördlich der Alpen postglazial nicht überschnitten haben. Über kleinräumige Wanderbewegungen kann mit den vorliegenden Daten keine Aussage gemacht werden. Eine Mischzone der Arten südlich der Alpen wird in Kroatien und Slowenien erwartet.

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Electrophoretic investigations of six populations of green lizards from Western, Central, and Southeastern Europe are consistent with results from hybridization experiments and confirm species status for the western green lizard, Lacerta bilineata. NE! distances of 0.16- 0.19 found between L. viridis and L. bilineata are within the range found for other sister species of lacertids. Lizards from the Greek island of Euboea differ slightly from typical viridis morphologically and electrophoretically, which is again consistent with hybridization results. The proven practicability of experimental hybridization provides support for the biological species concept.

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The lizard Podarcis carbonelli is an endangered species endemic to the Iberian Peninsula. One location where this species occurs is at the Berlengas Natural Preserve, an Atlantic archipelago off the coast of Portugal. These island populations are geographically separated from nearby mainland populations. The fundamental question is, are these insular individuals distinct from the mainland populations? Four localities were chose for comparison: two island populations and two nearby coastal populations. We assessed this question using three distinct approaches: molecular, morphological and physiological approach. We sequenced the 12S RNA, the mtDNA Control Region and the 7th intron of the !-fibrinogen gene and determined genetic diversity values as well as several parameters of population structure and differentiation. Individuals from these populations were also measured for several biometric characters and their blood lactate concentration was sampled. There was no genetic variation in both the mtDNA regions analyzed. The nuclear intron revealed high levels of genetic variation, with islands having in general lower values than the mainland regions. The four populations sampled had low levels of divergence; the populations of Berlenga and Peniche were the most distinct and the populations of Farilhão and Baleal were the most similar from the four populations sampled. Morphometric analyses revealed a different pattern of similarity among populations with the population of Farilhão being the only population statistically distinct from all other populations based on mass and SVL. Furthermore, island populations were in general more similar to each other than to mainland populations, with the exception of Berlenga males which in size are more similar to the Peniche males. The analysis of the blood lactate concentration revealed that the population of Peniche has significantly lower blood lactate levels than the populations of Farilhão and Berlenga. The lack of genetic differentiation found in the populations under study is most likely due to the recent divergence of these populations. Furthermore, the genetically most different populations (Berlenga and Peniche) are not the most distinct in terms of morphology, particularly the males. This suggests that genetic drift, the most likely mechanism behind the genetic differentiation seen, is not responsible for the morphological differences observed. The morphological differences seen can be attributed to: a possible difference in age of the individuals in each population; mechanisms of natural selection that are favoring specific phenotypes in each of the populations, or phenotypic plasticity. The differences in blood lactate levels found between the population of Peniche and the island populations can be attributed to differences in predatory pressure or home range size. It is suggested that the island populations are closely monitored due to their likely isolation, low mtDNA diversity and possible higher predatory pressure than initially predicted.

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As part of a wider study examining the impacts of corn pesticides on lacertid lizards in north-western Portugal, we examined various physiological, biochemical, and histological biomarkers of exposure and effect among field populations of Podarcis bocagei. Biomarkers included body condition index, standard metabolic rate, locomotor performance, parasitization, glutathione oxidative pathways and related enzyme activity, lipid peroxidation and liver and testis histology. Few of the various biomarkers investigated provided statistically significant evidence of toxic effect. However, using a weight of evidence approach, we conclude that pesticides are affecting lizards living in the vicinity of pesticide exposed corn agriculture sites. Lizards from these locations present a profile of animals under metabolic stress with reduced condition indices, increased standard metabolic rate, lower incidence of hepatocyte vacuolation, altered iron metabolism, increased activation of GSH oxidation pathways, and even increased prevalence of hemoparasites.

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Mesocosms (i.e., outdoor, man-made representations of natural ecosystems) have seldom been used to study the impact of contaminants on terrestrial ecosystems. However, mesocosms can be a useful tool to provide a link between field and laboratory studies. We exposed juvenile lacertid lizards for a period of over one year to pesticides (herbicides and insecticides) in mesocosm enclosures with the intention of validating field observations obtained in a previous study that examined the effects of corn pesticides in Podarcis bocagei. Our treatments replicated field conditions and consisted of a control, an herbicides only treatment (alachlor, terbuthylazine, mesotrione and glyphosate) and an herbicides and insecticide treatment (including chlorpyrifos). We used a multi-biomarker approach that examined parameters at an individual and sub-individual level, including growth, locomotor performance, standard metabolic rate, biomarkers of oxidative stress, esterases and liver histopathologies. Although mortality over the course of the exposures was high (over 60%), surviving individuals prospered relatively well in the mesocosms and displayed a broad range of natural behaviours. The low numbers of replicate animals compromised many of the statistical comparisons, but in general, surviving lizards exposed to pesticides in mesocosm enclosures for over one year, thrived, and displayed few effects of pesticide exposure. Despite the difficulties, this work acts as an important stepping-stone for future ecotoxicology studies using lizards.

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Lizards are one of the least studied groups in ecotoxicology and despite a recent increase in number of studies, there is still a lack of knowledge regarding their response to environmental contamination. Lacertid lizards have been identified as potential model species for reptile ecotoxicology in Europe. They offer several advantages over other groups as they are usually highly abundant; have strong site fidelity; are easy to capture, mark and recapture in the field; and are easy to maintain in captivity. The main goal of our project is to assess if highly abundant lacertid lizards belonging to the genus Podarcis in Southern Europe, can be used as bioindicators of pesticide exposure and toxicity in areas of intensive agriculture. We have chosen Podarcis bocagei because is a widely abundant species and the only lacertid present on high pesticide usage corn fields dominating the landscape of north- western Portugal. As a first approach, we will document the abundance, demography and biological fitness of the species occurring in areas of either intensive or negligible pesticide usage. A second approach aims to study naïve lizards in more controlled experiments, both in mesocosm and laboratory experiments to validate field observations. We intend to employ a variety of techniques to assess pesticide exposure and toxicity including biochemical, behavioural, morphological and molecular biomarkers. On a larger scale we hope to study bioaccumulation processes in lizards, reflect on the biological significance of the reported tissue concentrations and develop criteria to predict risk to lizard populations. In the future, similar projects using lacertids as bioindicators could be developed in other parts of the Mediterranean Basin.

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At the European level, lacertid lizards have been proposed as potential model species for reptile ecotoxicology. We studied demographic and morphological aspects of natural field subpopulations of Podarcis bocagei inhabiting similar agricultural habitats which were either regularly exposed to pesticides, or not. Parameters examined in this study included population size and density, sex ratio, adult body size, fluctuating asymmetry in femoral pores and parasite prevalence. In general, we detected few statistically significant differences between the exposed and reference subpopulations. Although field situations are ecologically complex and factors other than pesticides may be acting, the absence of observable effects on field subpopulations is probably indicative that lizards are coping or compensating for this level of exposure.

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In Europe, reptiles have been recently included in environmental risk-assessment processes for registration of plant-protection products. However, data on toxicity effects of most compounds are lacking. Chlorpyrifos is the most commonly used organophosphorus insecticide worldwide. In the present study, the authors exposed a lacertid lizard, Podarcis bocagei, to sublethal concentrations of chlorpyrifos. Individuals were exposed through spiked food for a period of 20 d (low dose 0.12 mg/kg/d, high dose 1.57 mg/kg/d). After exposure, various biomarkers of exposure and effect were evaluated, including the activities of glutathione S-transferase and enzymes involved in the glutathione redox cycle, glutathione concentrations, activities of esterases, liver and testes histopathologies, as well as locomotory and predatory behavior. The results indicate that sublethal, subchronic exposure to chlorpyrifos can affect P. bocagei in a dose-dependent manner. Adverse effects occurred at both the subindividual and individual levels, including inhibition of carboxylesterases and cholinesterases (ChEs), liver histopathological changes, and altered predatory behaviors. Animals exposed to chlorpyrifos took more time to capture and subdue prey items. The results suggest a link between effects at subindividual levels of organization with those observed at the whole individual level after exposure to environmentally realistic dosages of chlorpyrifos.

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Lizards are among the least studied groups in ecotoxicology and despite a recent increase in the number of studies, there is still a lack of knowledge regarding their response to environmental contamination. In Europe, lacertid lizards have been identified as potential model species for reptile ecotoxicology. The main question of this project was to assess if a highly abundant lacertid lizard belonging to the genus Podarcis, could be used as a bioindicator of pesticide exposure and toxicity in agricultural areas. To achieve this end, we used a three-stage tiered approach. The first tier took the form of a field survey to document the nature of the exposure and the population parameters of lacertids occurring in areas of intensive pesticide usage as well as areas of negligible pesticide usage. The second tier consisted of a mesocosm study in which naïve lizards were exposed to pesticides in a controlled experiment. Finally, the third tier included a laboratory approach to the effects of one of the most common insecticides used worldwide, chlorpyrifos. We assessed pesticide impact in individuals from the different tiers using a comprehensive set of biomarkers applied at different levels of biological organization, including population parameters as well as behavioral, physiological, biochemical and histological biomarkers. We detected few statistically significant differences between reference and exposed populations in the field study. Confirming the difficulty to isolate the effects of contaminants on natural populations where other local factors, natural cycles or stochastic events occur. P. bocagei populations seem to be able to compensate with the observed level of pesticide exposure. Nevertheless, individuals living in exposed sites seem to be less ecologically fit than those living in reference sites, presenting a depleted nutritional status and signs of metabolic stress. The results from the mesocosm setting reinforce these results. Lizards prospered relatively well in all enclosures, treated or not with pesticides, presenting a broad range of natural behaviors. The laboratory approach confirmed P. bocagei as valuable indicator of sub-lethal exposure to environmental realistic doses of chlorpyrifos. According to our results, P. bocagei seems to be a suitable bioindicator of pesticide exposure.

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Lizards are among the least studied groups in ecotoxicology, and despite a recent increase in the number of studies, there is still a lack of knowledge regarding their response to environmental contamination. In Europe, lacertid lizards have been identiied as potential model species for reptile ecotoxicology. The main question of our project was to assess if highly abundant lacertid lizards belonging to the genus Podarcis, could be used as bioindicator of pesticide exposure and toxicity in agricultural areas. To achieve this end, we used a three- stage tiered approach. The irst tier took the form of a ield survey to document both exposure and population endpoints of lacertids occurring in areas of intensive pesticide and usage and areas of negligible pesticide usage. The second tier was a mesocosm study in which naïve lizards were exposed to pesticides in a controlled experiment. Finally, the third tier included a laboratorial approach to the efects of one of the most common insecticides used worldwide, chlorpyrifos. We assessed pesticide impact using a comprehensive set of endpoints applied at diferent levels of biological organization, including behavioral, physiological, biochemical and histological biomarkers. The ield work conirmed the di culty of diferentiation between the efect of contaminants and other (local) factors at the population level but our results suggest a diference in the metabolic activity between animals from reference and exposed locations. Animals from exposed ields seem to be in worst body conditions and in a deicitary energy balance when compared to animals from the reference locations. The results of the mesocosm study validated the correlative data obtained in the ield survey. While the laboratory approach showed that environmentally relevant dosages of chlorpyrifos can afect P. bocagei. According to our data, P. bocagei seems to be a suitable indicator of sub-lethal exposure to pesticides.

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The determination of amphibians and reptiles species, their altitudinal range and biotopes in Les Planes de Son and the Mata de València, was determined by sampling the study area from autumn 2006 to spring of 2007. Compared to other studied Pyrenean areas, the herpetofauna is relatively poor. We only found 5 species of amphibians and 9 of reptiles. Specific samplings discard the presence of two Pyrenean endemics, de newt (Calotriton asper) and the lizard (Iberolacerta bonnali). Interestingly, we found an altitudinal replacement of ocelated lizard (Timon lepidus) by green lizard (Lacerta bilineata) and of Iberian rocky lizard (Podarcis hispanica) by Podarcis muralis. Less forested habitats situated at low altitude are the richest in amphibian and reptile species, in contrast to the highest places inhabited by few species (Rana temporaria, Podarcis muralis and Vipera aspis).

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Geographical variation in scalation traits of the Iberian green lizard Lacerta schreiberi was studied measuring 27 morphometric and pholidotic traits in 533 lizards from 12 populations. The results show a little morphological differentiation between the populations of the mountains of Central System and the Atlantic side of the Iberian peninsula. The reduced width of the occipital plate of Central System lizards appears as the most remarkable difference between this population and the other populations analysed. This differentiation is consistent with the presence of two groups of mitochondria DNA haplotypes in each of these geographic areas. Nevertheless, the differences detected were too insufficient to consider a modification of the taxonomic status of Lacerta schreiberi.

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Morphologic diversity was studied in 129 species of lacertid lizards and their relationship with ecology by means of comparative analysis on seven linear morphometric measurements. Body size is the most important variable determining, a continuum among small bodied species and larger ones independently evolved through the lacertid phylogeny. This variable is strongly and positively correlated with the others masking the patterns of morphologic diversity. Multivariate analysis on size-adjusted variables show a negative covariation among relative tail and limb length. Remarkably, arboreal and semiarboreal species (Takydromus and the Equatorial African clade) appeared two times independently during the evolution of lacertids and are characterized by extremely long tails, and relatively long forelimbs in comparison with hindlimb length. The arboreal and glider lizard Holaspis with their short tail constitute the only exception. Another case of convergence is found by some species dwelling into dense vegetation or grass (Tropidosaura, Lacerta agilis, Takydromus amurensis or Zootoca) which have long tails and short limbs. On the opposite, species living in deserts, steppes or scrublands with scarce vegetation isolated into extended open areas have developed long hindlimbs and short forelimbs to achieve higher speed and maneuverability This is especially the case of Acanthodactylus and Eremias.

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Pleistocene climate oscillations had a dramatic impact on the distribution of temperate ectothermic organisms. These range fluctuations plausibly have left a footprint on the species’ genetic structure which is linked with modelled paleoclimatic conditions, allowing us to infer which environmental factors shaped the evolutionary history of Sand lizards. In this study, we evaluated the patterns of niche diversification of Lacerta agilis in Eurasia, based on mitochondrial DNA analyses and ecological niche models. The lineage of Sand lizards evolved 3.8–1.8 Mya, being the most basal in the east-Caucasian subclade, with eight mitochondrial subclades separated into two groups. These groups represent two independent waves of expansion from the ancestral region constituted by the Caucasus and the adjacent northern plains to the Paleartic. Paleoclimatic models suggested a high instability of the range of this lineage in the last 3 Mya, with niche contractions during the colder glacial periods and expansions following the glacier retreat. This suggested an allopatric diversification process, with subspecies boundaries upon secondary contact maintained by competitive interactions, at least between closely related pairs. The great mountain systems of the Mediterranean Peninsulas constituted stable refugia during the Pliocene–Pleistocene cycles, favouring the evolution of endemic subclades. These montane subclades have higher mitochondrial diversity than those that occur in the plains. However, the Pyrenean endemic L. agilis garzoni is exception possibly due to the occupation of a very small refugium during the recent glacial phases.

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The persistence of populations is based on the optimization of reproductive processes as a means of compensating for the loss of individuals through mortality. One way of reaching this equilibrium is the coadaptation of reproductive traits defining different strategies. I explored these tactics in lacertid lizards by analysing the covariation between, on the one hand, clutch size and frequency, and on the other, egg mass, using independent contrast data from 42 species. In addition, I examined the influence of female and newborn size on these variables. All the traits investigated, with the exception of clutch frequency, are influenced by female body size, reflecting physical constraints on reproductive output. The negative trade-off between clutch size and newborn size on one hand and egg mass on the other is congruent with the partitioning of energetic resources to produce a few large or numerous small descendents. Clutch frequency is unrelated to the other female reproductive traits.

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The reproductive cycle of Lacerta agilis was studied in the Pyrenees at the southwestern boundary of the species range. The activity period is short (about 4.5 months). Males attain sexual maturity at smaller sizes than females and show mixed type spermatogenesis and spring spermiogenesis. Vitellogenesis in females is rapid (45 days for the whole population) with a long period of oviductal retention. Clutches are laid at the beginning of summer. During the reproductive period males mobilise reserves during the mating activities. Females deplete more fat reserves but later in the season than males and they are at their lowest after egg production. In both sexes, energy resources are mobilised from the fat bodies and also from the liver and the proximal part of the tail. Clutch size increases with female size but also depends on other factors. The short activity period does not appear to affect the reproductive cycle of this species. The gonad cycles and clutch traits do not show substantial differences from other European populations, perhaps with the exception of slight variation in the timing of reproductive events and, to a lesser extent, clutch frequency. This evidence strongly suggests that the limited southwestern range of Lacerta agilis is not due to environmental constraints but to very recent colonization.

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Abstract. The thermal relations, diel, and annual activity and microhabitat use of Lacerta agiliswere studied in the Pyrenean isolated range of this species. Although, this heliothermic lizard demonstrated thermoregulatory capability, thermal constraints attributable to the mountain climate were observed. The activity pattern was that typical of cold temperate lizards but the beginning of activity was delayed in comparison with lowland populations. The reproductive cycle determined different activity patterns for males and females. The ontogenetic and seasonal changes in microhabitat use detected suggest influence of body size, reproductive condition in adults, and interference with other individuals in juveniles.

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We report the first study of diet composition of a Pyrenean lizard of the genus Iberolacerta, the Aurelio`s lizard, I. aurelioi, living in an alpine rocky slope at 2300 m of altitude in Andorra. Diet composition was studied during two years from 289 faecal pellets containing 966 prey items. Number of prey per pellet shows annual, seasonal and sexual differences. Diet of the species is poorly diverse, mainly dominated by insects, but we find clear evidences of opportunistic cannibalism based on the presence of toes and scales in feces. In addition, we detected minor sexual, annual and month differences in prey presence and abundance. Low amplitude of trophic niche width and prey diversity, as well as predation on clumped prey and cannibalistic behaviour suggest that Iberolacerta aurelioi has a remarkable dietary strategy in response to strong thermal and food availability constraints at high mountain habitats.

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In the developing brain, the phenomenon of neurogenesis is manifested heterotopically, that is, much the same neurogenetic steps occur at different places with a different timetable. This is due apparently to early molecular regionalization of the neural tube wall in the anteroposterior and dorsoventral dimensions, in a checkerboard pattern of more or less deformed quadrangular histogenetic areas. Their respective fate is apparently specified by a locally specific combination of active/repressed genes known as “molecular profile.” This leads to position-dependent differential control of proliferation, neurogenesis, differentiation, and other aspects, eventually in a heterochronic manner across adjacent areal units with sufficiently different molecular profiles. It is not known how fixed these heterochronic patterns are. We reexamined here comparatively early patterns of forebrain and hindbrain neurogenesis in a lizard (Lacerta gallotia galloti), a bird (the chick), and a mammal (the rat), as demonstrated by activation of acetylcholinesterase (AChE). This is an early marker of postmitotic neurons, which leaves unlabeled the neuroepithelial ventricular cells, so that we can examine cleared wholemounts of the reacted brains to have a birds-eye view of the emergent neuronal pattern at each stage. There is overall heterochrony between the basal and alar plates of the brain, a known fact, but, remarkably, heterochrony occurs even within the precocious basal plate among its final anteroposterior neuromeric subdivisions and their internal microzonal subdivisions. Some neuromeric units or microzones are precocious, while others follow suit without any specific spatial order or gradient; other similar neuromeric units remain retarded in the midst of quite advanced neighbors, though they do produce similar neurogenetic patterns at later stages. It was found that some details of such neuromeric heterochrony are species-specific, possibly related to differential morphogenetic properties. Given the molecular causal underpinning of the updated prosomeric model used here for interpretation, we comment on the close correlation between some genetic patterns and the observed AChE differentiation patterns.

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Many species exhibit color polymorphisms which have distinct physiological and behavioral characteristics. However, the consistency of morph trait covariation patterns across species, time, and ecological contexts remains unclear. This trait covariation is especially relevant in the context of invasion biology and urban adaptation. Specifically, physiological traits pertaining to energy maintenance are crucial to fitness, given their immediate ties to individual reproduction, growth, and population establishment. We investigated the physiological traits of Podarcis muralis, a versatile color polymorphic species that thrives in urban environments (including invasive populations in Ohio, USA). We measured five physiological traits (plasma corticosterone and triglycerides, hematocrit, body condition, and field body temperature), which compose an integrated multivariate phenotype. We then tested variation among co-occurring color morphs in the context of establishment in an urban environment. We found that the traits describing physiological status and strategy shifted across the active season in a morph-dependent manner—the white and yellow morphs exhibited clearly different multivariate physiological phenotypes, characterized primarily by differences in plasma corticosterone. This suggests that morphs have different strategies in physiological regulation, the flexibility of which is crucial to urban adaptation. The white-yellow morph exhibited an intermediate phenotype, suggesting an intermediary energy maintenance strategy. Orange morphs also exhibited distinct phenotypes, but the low prevalence of this morph in our study populations precludes clear interpretation. Our work provides insight into how differences among stable polymorphisms exist across axes of the phenotype and how this variation may aid in establishment within novel environments.

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The structure of the lizard community in Damietta was analyzed in the present study. Five locations were selected as a study area, each represents different habitat of Damietta Governorate. Seven lizard species were recorded which are related to four families and five genera. They were Chamaeleo africanus, Hemidactylus turcicus, Chalcides ocellatus, Mabuya quinquetaeniata, Mabuya vittata, Acanthodactylus boskianus and Acanthodactylus scutellatus. The lacertid lizards Acanthodactylus boskianus and Acanthodactylus scutellatus were the most common species in the community. Therefore, the study was extended to reveal the genetic variability for the population of these two species in Damietta. Four arbitrary chosen enzymes were analyzed electrophoretically. These enzymes were Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH), esterase (EST), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and acid phosphatase (ACP). Eleven presumed gene loci have been recorded. A. scutellatus showed higher genetic variability with a polymorphism of 90% of its population compared to 82% for the samples of A. boskianus.

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We describe the blood and intestinal parasites in the Ocellated lizard, Lacerta lepida, examining the factors that determine the prevalence and intensity of infection of haemogregarines, and the prevalence of coccidia and nematodes. In relation to haemogregarines, no juveniles were detected as being infected, whereas 71.7 % of adults were infected. The prevalence of infection was positively related to the size of the adults. There were no differences between seasons or sexes in the prevalence or intensity of infection in adults. There were no significant differences in the prevalence of infection by nematodes between ages or sexes, nor in relation to the size of adult lizards, but adult lizards excreting coccidian oocysts tend to be smaller. During the mating period, reproductive activities lead to a decrease in the body condition. However, neither the intensity of haemogregarine’s infection nor the prevalence of intestinal parasites was related to the lizards’ body condition.

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Animals should tend to adjust the magnitude and characteristics of their escape responses according to the perceived levels of predation risk to cope with risk without incurring excessive costs. We analyze in the field the factors that determine the choice of escape behavior and patterns of refuge use of Wall Lizards under two simulated levels of predation risk and under variable environmental conditions, which may affect risk perception and costs of refuge use. The results show that Wall Lizards adjusted their antipredatory response according to several factors. The threat of predation posed by the predator affected the initial type of response of lizards but not the subsequent escape strategies employed. The escape strategy depended on the vulnerability to be captured (i.e., height on the wall and air temperature) and costs of refuge use (temperature and potential predation by ambush snakes). The initial risk of predation and thermal costs of refuge use affected emergence times from the refuge. The antipredator decisions of Wall Lizards, therefore, were influenced not only by the probability of mortality in the immediate future, such as the initial threat of predation and perceived susceptibility but also by consequences for long-term expected fitness, such as physiological costs of refuge use, and by the eventual risk of mortality associated with the use of unsafe refuges.

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The study of the effect of parasites on their host populations is essential for understanding their role in host population dynamics and ecology. We describe the general field population biology of haemogregarines in the Iberian rock lizard, Lacerta monticola, examining the factors that determine the prevalence and intensity of infection. Prevalence and infection intensity were higher in adults than in juvenile lizards. The prevalence rate was higher in larger lizards, probably because they were also older and had been more often in contact with parasites during their lifetime. During the mating season, the intensity of parasite infection was greater in males than in females, probably due to immunosuppressive effects of testosterone. The parasite load had a negative effect on the body condition during the reproductive season. The results suggest that the interactions between parasites and hosts are not stable in this lizard population.

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The Smooth Snake, Coronella austriaca, is an ambush predator that waits for its main prey, the Wall Lizard, Podarcis muralis, inside dark rock crevices where lizards retreat. Pheromonal secretions of lizards could be used by snakes to select foraging sites but also during predatory episodes when identifying lizards under conditions of low visibility is beneficial. We used cotton applicators labeled with lizard scent to determine whether Smooth Snakes can discriminate the chemical cues ofWall Lizards.We also asked whether snakes could discriminate between male and female lizards, or detect male scents before female ones, which could indicate differential susceptibility of the sexes to predation. The greater tongue-flick rate in response to Wall Lizard scent than to deionized water or cologne indicated that C. austriaca is able to discriminate the chemical cues of Wall Lizards, but it did not discriminate between the sexes of lizard prey.

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Multiple predators can have risk-enhancing effects due to conflicting predator-specific prey defenses. Wall lizards (Podarcis muralis) escape from searching predators by fleeing into refuges where they can also encounter ambush snakes (Coronella austri- aca). We simulated attacks to lizards in the laboratory to compare their use of preda- tor-scented refuges with that of control refuges, and examined whether lizards that suf- fered a second attack changed the refuge used in the first attack if they had been hidden before in an unsafe refuge. The presence of snake cues neither influenced time to enter the refuge nor refuge choice. However, appearance time was greater in the snake- scented refuge, probably due to time spent acquiring information to ensure the absence of the snake. This was supported because once lizards appeared, they resumed their activities in the same interval of time. Our results suggest a case of predator facilitation due to conflicting prey defenses.

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The threat sensitivity hypothesis assumes that multiple cues from a predator should contribute in an additive way to determine the degree of risk-sensitive behaviour. The ability to use multiple cues in assessing the current level of predation risk should be especially important to prey exposed to multiple predators. Wall lizards, Podarcis muralis, respond to predatory attacks from birds or mammals by hiding inside rock crevices, where they may encounter another predator, the smooth snake, Coronella austriaca. We investigated in the laboratory whether chemical cues may be important to wall lizards for detection of snakes. The greater tongue-flick rate and shorter latency to first tongue-flick in response to predator scents indicated that lizards were able to detect the snakes` chemical cues. We also investigated the use of different predatory cues by lizards when detecting the presence of snakes within refuges. We simulated successive predator attacks and compared the propensity of lizards to enter the refuge and time spent within it for predator-free refuges, refuges containing either only visual or chemical cues of a snake, or a combination of these. The antipredatory response of lizards was greater when they were exposed to both visual and chemical cues than when only one cue was presented, supporting the threat sensitivity hypothesis. This ability may improve the accuracy of assessments of the current level of predation risk inside the refuge. It could be especially important in allowing lizards to cope with threats posed by two types of predators requiring conflicting prey defences.

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Prey often respond to predators by increasing refuge use, but some refuges may expose prey to other types of predators. Because predators are not always visible inside refuges, their chemical stimuli may provide early warning of their presence. However, in ectotherms, chemosensory detection of predators may be thermally dependent. Lizards often hide in cold refuges, where their body temperature (Tb) may decrease, and this might affect their ability to detect chemicals of saurophagous snakes that ambush inside refuges. We examined the effects of Tb of wall lizards, Podarcis muralis, on their ability to detect chemicals of smooth snakes, Coronella austriaca. Differential tongue flick (TF) rates and behavioral patterns of lizards in response to scent of smooth snakes showed that lizards with optimal Tb discriminated and avoided the snake`s scent, whereas lizards with suboptimal Tb did not. We also examined the importance of this effect on movement patterns and refuge use by lizards in terraria with safe (odorless) or unsafe refuges (snake-scented). While results of this experiment were variable, there was evidence of snake avoidance in that lizards at optimal Tb spent less time in snake-scented refuges relative to odorless refuges. Therefore, this study provides evidence that chemosensory discrimination of snake chemicals is thermally dependent, and, thus, suboptimal Tb impedes a lizard`s ability to avoid snake-scented refuges.

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Many animals use chemical cues to detect predators. However, according to the threat sensitivity hypothesis, natural selection should favor individuals able to respond differentially to the chemical cues of predators that pose different levels of risk rather than responding to chemical cues of all predators in a similar way. The behavioral responses of prey to chemical cues of predators might depend, for example, on the degree to which predators include prey in their diets. The Wall Lizard (Podarcis muralis) is under high predation pressure by saurophagous-specialist Smooth Snakes (Coronella austriaca). Wall Lizards are also an important part of the diet of the Montpellier Snake (Malpolon monspessulanus) and occasional prey of the Ladder Snake (Elaphe scalaris). Also, Wall Lizards are sympatric with the non-saurophagous Viperine Snake (Natrix maura). In the laboratory, we compared the tongue-flick rates and behavioral patterns of Wall Lizards in response to exposure to chemical signals of these four snake species that pose different risks of predation. Results suggested that Wall Lizards were able to discriminate the chemical cues of the predatory snakes from the non-saurophagous snake. However, lizards did not respond differentially to chemical cues of different predatory snakes. We suggest that other additional cues are probably needed to elicit an adequate, specific defensive response.

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Lizards often respond to predator presence by increasing refuge use. However, this behaviour may expose lizards to saurophagous snakes, which inhabit the same refuges to ambush their lizard prey. Snakes, which are not always visible, deposit chemical trails that can be detected by lizards. Even though there are obvious advantages of using chemical cues, chemical detection of predators might lead to very conservative estimates of risk. This is because chemical cues might indicate that an area was risky in the recent past, but not necessarily at the current time. We examined experimentally whether wall lizards (Podarcis muralis) avoid using refuges that contain chemical cues of smooth snakes (Coronella austriaca), and whether this avoidance response is maintained long term or whether it can be modified. Results suggest that wall lizards detected the chemical cues of smooth snakes inside refuges, and, in the short term, decreased the use of predator-scented refuges and increased their escape movements. However, this avoidance response seemed to decrease in the long term. By investigating the refuge again over subsequent time periods, lizards reassessed whether the snake was actually present, modified their refuge use and decreased their avoidance response. Therefore, wall lizards seem able to assess temporal variations in predation risk by snakes inside refuges and to respond accordingly.

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Animals in natural environments usually face different types of predators, and conflict- ing prey defenses can increase risk of predation if prey responses to one predator result in a greater risk from another predator. Wall lizards (Podarcis muralis) respond to predators in the open, such as birds or mammals, by hiding inside rock crevices, where they may be exposed to predation by ambushing saurophagous smooth snakes (Coro- nella austriaca). This offers an excellent system to study how prey behave to avoid multiple predators acting simultaneously. We first performed a field study to examine the escape behavior and refuge use of wall lizards. Lizards mainly responded to the simulated attack by fleeing to hide in the nearest refuge. However, lizards that were far from known refuges sometimes used an alternative escape behavior; lizards fled for longer while passing potential refuges without hiding, thus, presumably avoiding hiding when their reliance in refuge safety was low. This was supported by a further analysis of movement patterns of wall lizards. Spontaneous locomotor patterns could be described as an amount of bursts of locomotion separated by short and long pauses. Lizards stopped near refuges more often, but previously they spent more time in short pauses when moving in or close to refuges exploring them by tongue flicking, than in open rocks. This agreed with a laboratory experiment where we analyzed responses of lizards to substrate scent deposits of smooth snakes. Lizards detected the snake’s scent, and responded by increasing their movement rate in an effort to leave the risky area. However, in the field, after a simulated attack in the open, lizards emerged from the refuge and left the area quickly, decreasing the frequency of short pauses, probably to avoid a new attack in the open. Flexibility in antipredatory behavior may help wall lizards to avoid the risk enhancing effect of two types of predators requiring conflict- ing prey defenses.

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We describe the general field population biology of haemogregarines and mites in the wall lizard, Podarcis muralis, examining the factors that determine the prevalence and intensity of infection. The intensity of infection by haemogregarines in females was slightly lower in summer than in spring, whereas males maintained similar levels of intensity among all the seasons, probably due to immunosuppressive effects of testosterone. This is also supported because the prevalence and the infection intensity by mites were higher in males than in females. Parasite load was higher in lizards with better body condition, which could be reflecting the mortality of infected lizards with poor condition.

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Nature-based tourism has experienced a greater increase, and, even although it might have deleterious effects for many wildlife species, its consequences remains little explored. Many lizard species are endangered and tourism has been proposed as a potential factor responsible of the decline of several lizards` populations, but no study has examined the effect of tourism on lizards` behaviour, body condition and health state. Many lizards respond to people as if they were predators, by readily escaping to refuges. However, an increase in the frequency of these antipredatory strategies can lead to a loss of body condition, which may have important consequences for short and long term fitness. We analysed the effects of tourism on escape behaviour of common wall lizards, Podarcis muralis, as well as on their body condition and health state (ectoparasites, blood parasites, and cell mediated immune response). Results showed that lizards did not modify their escape behaviour in response to tourism. Lizards had similar approach and flight distances, and escape strategies regardless of the level of tourism pressure. However, lizards inhabiting areas with high tourism levels, where they presumably needed to perform antipredatory behaviours more often, showed higher intensity of infection by ticks and lower body condition at the end of the breeding period. Moreover, lizards with poorer body condition had lower cell mediated immune responses. Therefore, tourism seems to have deleterious effects on body condition and on host-parasite relationships in this lizard species. These effects should be taking into account when designing walking paths in protected areas. Our study reports evidence that regardless lizards showed similar escape behaviour in tourist than in natural areas, their body condition and health state should be also examined to accurately assess the actual effects of tourism on lizards` populations.

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The ability to use multiple cues in assessing predation risk is especially important to prey animals exposed to multiple predators. Wall lizards, Podarcis muralis, respond to predatory attacks from birds in the open by hiding inside rock crevices, where they may encounter saurophagous ambush smooth snakes. Lizards should avoid refuges with these snakes, but in refuges lizards can also find non-saurophagous viperine snakes, which lizards do not need to avoid. We investigated in the laboratory whether wall lizards used different predator cues to detect and discriminate between snake species within refuges. We simulated predatory attacks in the open to lizards, and compared their refuge use, and the variation in the responses after a repeated attack, between predator-free refuges and refuges containing visual, chemical, or visual and chemical cues of saurophagous or non-saurophagous snakes. Time to enter a refuge was not influenced by potential risk inside the refuge. In contrast, in a successive second attack, lizards sought cover faster and tended to increase time spent hidden in the refuge. This suggests a case of predator facilitation because persistent predators in the open may force lizards to hide faster and for longer in hazardous refuges. However, after hiding, lizards spent less time in refuges with both chemical and visual cues of snakes, or with chemical cues alone, than in predator-free refuges or in refuges with snake visual cues alone, but there were no differences in response to the two snake species. Therefore, lizards could be overestimating predation risk inside refuges. We discuss which selection pressures might explain this lack of discrimination of predatory from similar non-predatory snakes.

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Natural vegetation in Europe appears nowadays deeply modified by human activities. In the Guadarrama Mountains (Central Spain), ancient reforestations with Scots pines, Pinus sylvestris, replaced original deciduous pyrenean oak, Quercus pyrenaica, forests (since the Roman period). However, the effect of reforestations on fauna remains little known, especially in reptiles. We described patterns of microhabitat selection in several species of Lacertid lizards, and analyzed whether the modification of the original vegetation affected distribution and population densities of lizards. The species of lacertid lizards found in oak forests (Psammodromus algirus, Lacerta lepida and Podarcis hispanica) were different to those of in pine plantations (Podarcis muralis and Podarcis hispanica). Lizards did not use habitat at random and this could explain differences in species found in both forests, which differed in some microhabitat structure characteristics. Most lizards selected microhabitats with rocky outcrops, with low cover of trees, and close to refuges. These microhabitat preferences also explained abundance of lizards in transects. From the perspective of conservation and management of lizards, pine plantations seem not to contribute too much to the diversity of lizard species because species typical from oak forests were lost. This study has implications for pine reforestation management, because allowing the recolonization by understory oaks, and leaving some open areas, without trees but with dense shrubs and rocks inside reforestations would contributed to maintain lizard populations.

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We analyzed whether habitat deterioration due to ski slopes affected lizards’ behavior, and whether these changes in behavior had consequences for the body condition and health state of lizards. Results suggested that habitat deterioration in ski slopes not only implied a loss of optimal habitat for lizards, but also led to an increase in perceived risk of predation. Males seemed to adjust their movement patterns to differences in risk, increasing their movement speed during their displacements across risky areas within ski slopes, but as a consequence, they incurred loss of body condition. A laboratory experiment supported that fleeing at high speeds in areas without refuges can be a factor responsible for reduced body condition. However, changes in body condition did not affect sprint speed of lizards. Our study provides new evidence that behavioral strategies to cope with increased predation risk, due to human-induced habitat deterioration, may affect body condition of lizards. Our results have applications for the design of conservation plans for this endangered lizard species. Environmental impact studies should be performed before opening new ski slopes, but taking into account not only the presence of lizards but also their body condition. An effective way to decrease the effects of habitat loss may be the artificial restoration of some refuges to create safe corridors for movement.

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Lizards often respond to increased predation risk by increasing refuge use, but this strategy may entail a loss of thermoregulatory opportunities, which may lead to a loss of body condition. This may be especially important for pregnant oviparous female lizards, because they need to maintain optimal body temperatures as long as possible to maximize developmental embryos rate until laying. However, little is known about how increased time spent at low temperatures in refuges affects body condition and health state of pregnant female lizards. Furthermore, it is not clear how initial body condition affects refuge use. Female Iberian rock lizards forced to increase time spent at low temperatures showed lower body condition and tended to show lower cell-mediated immune responses than control females. Therefore, the loss of thermoregulatory opportunities seems to be an important cost for pregnant females. Nevertheless, thereafter, when we simulated two repeated predatory attacks, females modified refuge use in relation to their body condition, with females with worse condition decreasing time hidden after attacks. In conclusion, female lizards seemed able to compensate increased predation risk with flexible antipredatory strategies, thus minimizing costs for body condition and health state.

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Deforestation may increase predation risk for prey because it may make prey more conspicuous and limit the number of refuges suitable to avoid predators. Therefore, prey may need to increase the magnitude of escape responses. However, excessive antipredatory effort might lead to a loss of body mass and a decrease in defense against parasites, with important consequences for short- and long-term fitness. We analyzed whether Psammodromus algirus (L., 1758) lizards that inhabit patches with different levels of deterioration of the vegetation within the same oak forest differed in relative abundance numbers, microhabitat use, antipredatory strategies, and health state. Results showed lizards selected similar microhabitats regardless of the level of deterioration of the vegetation and relative abundance of lizards was similar in both areas. However, habitat deterioration seemed to increase predation risk, at least for females, because they were detected at longer distances in deteriorated areas. Females seemed to adjust their antipredatory behavior accordingly to high risk of predation by increasing approach distances allowed to predators. The costs associated with frequent antipredatory displays might explain why females in deteriorated habitats had lower body condition and greater blood parasite loads than females in natural areas. This loss of body condition and increased parasitemia might have deleterious consequences for female fitness and therefore affect the maintenance of lizard populations in the long-term.

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Prey often respond to predation risk by increasing refuge use, but this strategy may entail a loss of body condition. Factors responsible for this loss of body condition remain unclear. Also how prey deal with refuge use to cope with predation risk without incurring costs of body condition, and how initial body condition affects refuge use remain barely known. We analyzed in the field whether adult Iberolacerta cyreni lizards modify their escape strategies and refuge use in areas with different levels of habitat deterioration and ecotourism pressure, which represent different levels of predation risk, and the consequences of changes in antipredator behavior to body condition. Lizards inhabiting deteriorated areas, where risk is higher, remained closer to refuges, but decreased time spent hidden in refuges after attacks, probably to maintain similar body condition than lizards inhabiting natural areas. We performed two laboratory experiments to isolate potential costs of refuge use that might affect the body condition of male lizards: a) a decrease of the efficiency of digestion due to low temperatures inside refuges and/or b) a reduction in food intake. Results suggest that refuge use is costly in terms of body condition due to reduced food intake, but the loss of efficiency of digestion seems unimportant. Lizards modified refuge use in relation to their body condition, with lizards with worse condition decreasing time hidden after predatory attacks. We concluded that lizards compensated for increased predation risk with flexible antipredatory strategies, coping with risk without incurring costs for body condition.

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Lizards and small rodents were live captured in Tuscany, central Italy, from May through August 2005. Prevalence of infestation by larval Ixodes ricinus L. (Acari: Ixodidae) and mean numbers of larvae per host were not significantly different for common wall lizards, Podarcis muralis Laurenti, and Apodemus spp. mice, whereas infestation levels by nymphs were significantly greater on lizards. Borrelia lusitaniae, which was previously shown to be dominant in host-seeking I. ricinus in the same study area, was detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in 19.8% (95% confidence interval: 14.4, 26.0) of larval ticks and in 52.9% (27.8, 77.0) of nymphs that were collected from lizards. Moreover, 18.8% (7.2, 36.4) and 25.0 (3.2, 65.1) of lizards` tail biopsies and blood samples, respectively, were positive for B. lusitaniae. Conversely, attached ticks and ear biopsies from Apodemus spp. mice were PCR negative. Passerine birds belonging to 10 species were live captured in March 2005, and Borrelia valaisiana was detected in 57.1% (18.4, 90.1) of I. ricinus nymphs feeding on Eurasian blackbirds, Turdus merula L. Results of this study suggest that lizards play an important role as reservoirs for B. lusitanae and may affect the dominance of this genospecies in the Mediterranean area.

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Further localities for two species of amphibians [Hyla savigny, Triturus (O.) vittatus] and fourteen of reptiles [Blanus strauchi, Testudo graeca, Chelonia mydas, Mauremys caspica, Asaccus elisae, Cyrtopodion scaber, Laudakia stellio, Trapelus ruderatus, T. persicus, T pallidus, Eumeces schneideri, Ophisops elegans, Varanus griseus, Coluber (H.) nummifer] collected or observed in Syria are given with some notes. Emphasis on trade in reptiles in Syria revealed that at least five species are threatened due to excessive trade, including the Middle Eastern Spur-thighed Tortoise, Testudo graeca terrestris, the Striped-necked Turtle, Mauremys rivulata, the Mediterranean Chameleon, Chamaeleo chamaeleon, the Dabb, Uromastyx aegyptia, and two snakes; Natrix sp. and Coluber jugularis. KURZFASSUNG Es wird über weitere Fundorte von zwei Arten von Amphibien [Hyla savigny, Triturus (O.) vittatus] und vierzehn von Reptilien [Blanus strauchi, Testudo graeca, Chelonia mydas, Mauremys caspica, Asaccus elisae, Cyrtopodion scaber, Laudakia stellio, Trapelus ruderatus, T. persicus, T. pallidus, Eumeces schneideri, Ophisops elegans, Varanus griseus, Coluber (H.) nummifer] berichtet, die in Syrien gefangen oder beobachtet wurden. Zusätzlich werden Angaben über den Lebensraum am Fundort gemacht. Bei der Befassung mit dem Reptilienhandel in Syrien, stellten sich zumindest fünf Arten als durch uneingeschränkten Handel gefährdet heraus, nämlich die Syrische Landschildkröte Testudo graeca terrestris, die Kaspische Bachschildkröte Mauremys rivulata, das Europäische Chamäleon, Chamaeleo chamaeleon, die Ägyptische Dornschwanzagame Uromastyx aegyptia und zwei Schlangenarten, eine Wassernatter (Natrix sp.) und die Pfeilnatter Coluber jugularis.

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A total of 46 reptilian species belonging to 9 families (Gekkonidae, Agamidae, Chamaeleonidae, Scincidae, Lacertidae, Varanidae, Boidae, Colubridae and Viperidae) are reported from Southern Jordan. Bunopus tuberculatus, Tropiocolotes steudneri and Phrynocephalus arabicus are new records, while Coluber elegantissimus is reported for the second time. A. population of horned Cerastes cerastes was found at Disah area. Remarks on the distribution of these reptiles are included. Acanthodactylus boskianus, Acanthodactylus tristrami, Acanthodactylus grandis, Acanthodactylus opheodurus, Acanthodactylus pardalis, Ophisops elegans, Mesalina guttulata, Lacerta laevis kulzeri.

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In this study, we identified the diversity of the freshwater, marine and terrestrial herpetofauna of the State of Kuwait. It consists of a total of 45 extant species; 44 species of reptiles and a single species of amphibian according to recent updated taxonomic studies. All specimens of reptiles collected and held in American and European natural history museums are documented. Four species are added to the herpetofauna of Kuwait: Chalcides ocellatus, Hydrophis lapemo ides, Hydrophis viperina, and Trapelus agnetae.

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We present the results of several field campaigns, realized from June 2007 to September 2008, and from March 2012 to May 2014 in different Algerian localities (Cap Djinet, Tigzirt, Boukhalfa, Ouadias, El Misser, Darna and Talaguilef). During this field work we have collected 488 specimens belonging to 35 species: 328 small mammals (11 species), 53 amphibians (6 species), 106 squamates (17 species) and one chelonian. The trapping success was highly variable (0.1 to 13.34 %). Genetic and morphometric analyses in progress will improve our knowledge of the evolutionary history of these small vertebrates at population and community scales.

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This paper reports the results of newest investigations of lizards` demonstration behaviour. A special attention was paid to lizards` aposematic and epigamious reactions which are of great importance when forming couples and defending individual territories. The species differences represent in quite a number of cases the most essential obsacle for the formation of couples of the individuals of different specis, even if the morphological differences of these species are hardly perceptible. Being the determining feature in intra- and inter- species contacts, the demonstration behaviour ensures the integrity of a species.

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Morphometric evaluation of limb proportions in five sympatric desert lacertas of the genus Eremias, namely E. velox, E. grammica, E. intermedia, E. lineolata, and E. scripta inhabiting southern Balkhash Lake region (Sary-Ishyk-Otrau desert), Kazakhstan, was made. Considerable species differences in proportions of some limb segments associated with locomotion adaptations (burrowing, climbing etc) of these lizards have been found as well as sexual dimorphism and age variability. Associations among morphometric peculiarities (limb proportions), locomotion activity, spatial, temporal, and trophic characteristics of ecological niches of sympatric species are discussed.

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The scientific biography of the outstanding herpetologist and specialist in zoogeography Sergei Alexandrovich Chernov (1903–1964) was reconstructed on the base the study of archival materials and literature sources. The text is divided into four parts, reflecting the main stages of his biography: 1903–1930 – Kharkiv, the beginning of the scientific career; 1930–1941 – relocation to Leningrad, Tajik-Pamir expedition; 1941–1945 – Great Patriotic War and evacuation; 1945–1964 – period after the Great Patriotic War. In the paper, we emphasize the line of teacher–student continuity begun by A.M. Nikolsky and S.A. Chernov in the herpetology department of the Zoological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The appendix contains a list of his publications (52 ti- tles), taxa, described by him (11) and named in his honor (6). In majority of his publications, Chernov was the sole author; most of them were published in Russian; only one paper was written in a foreign (German) language. One of the main achievements of Chernov should be recognized a publication of the Guide of amphibians and reptiles of the USSR together with P.V. Terentyev. He made the greatest contribution to the study of the systematics of lizards and snakes, composition, zoogeography, and the history of the formation of the herpetofauna of Central Asia. According to his studies, the fauna of Central and Central Asia are subsidiaries of the once united region, what contradicted the views of his teacher Nikolsky, who developed the concept of M.A. Menzbir about the young postglacial origin of the Aral-Caspian deserts and the ancient, Eocene origin of the deserts of Central Asia.

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A complete catalogue is provided for the type specimens of amphibians and reptiles collected by Nikolay A. Zarudny and stored mostly in the herpetological collection of the Zoological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia (ZISP), as of August 2018. The collection contains 270 type specimens, representing 51 taxa (species and/or subspecies) of one family of turtles, one amphisbaenia family, five lizard families and four snake families from 74 type localities. As a result of studying Zarudny’s collections, mainly from Iran, was the description by A. M. Nikolsky of two new genera, Microgecko and Diplometopon, and 42 species and subspecies (varieties). Twenty-two of these taxa are regarded currently as valid.

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TERRA TYPICA. Settlement Tengizbai, Altai Range. DISTRIBUTION. It occurs in the mountains of Tien Shan system and northern Pamir-Altai within the limits of Kyrgyzstan, Ferganskaya valley in Uzbekistan and northern Tajikistan. The record of this species in the extreme south-east of Kazakhstan (Terskei-Alatau) needs to be confirmed more precisely. CONSERVATION STATUS. The species does not require special conservation measures.

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TERRA TYPICA. Isfahan city, central Iran. DISTRIBUTION. It occurs in the south of Turkmenistan where two isolated populations are known – in the valley of the river Kushka and the depression Er-Oilan-Duz in the Badkhyz Nature Reserve. The main distribution is situated within Iran, in the central and eastern parts of the Iran Plateau. CONSERVATION STATUS. A common species on the territory of Turkmenistan. Species with a stable number lives on the protected territory of the Badkhyz Nature Reserve.

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TERRA TYPICA. Town Nakhichevan, Azerbaijan. DISTRIBUTION. It occurs in the left-bank valley of the river Aras in Armenia and in Nakhichevan, Azerbaijan, i.e. approximately from the town Echmiadzin in the west up to the southern foothills of the Megrinsky range. Outside of the eastern Transcaucasia it occurs in the extreme east of Turkey and in the north-western Iran. CONSERVATION STATUS. The species does not require special conservation measures.

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TERRA TYPICA. Alashan desert. DISTRIBUTION. It is distributed mainly in the north China (Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang-Uyghur Autonomous Region) and in Mongolia, from where it penetrates into the territory of the neighbouring Tuva. In North Eurasia the species is widely distributed in the western and southern Mongolia (Ubsunur, Kobdo, Dzabkhan, Gobi-Altai, Bayan-Khongor, Uwer-Khangai, South-Gobi, East-Gobi, Middle- Gobi aimaks) and in Tuva [in Russia]. In the flood-plain of the river Nariin-Gol lives the subspecies E. p. tuvensis Szczerbak, 1970. CONSERVATION STATUS. E. p. tuvensis is included into the Red Data book of the Russian Federation (2001): category 3 – rare species within the limits of Russia known on the northern periphery of the distribution range.

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TERRA TYPICA. Town Shirabad, Surkhandar’inskaya region, Uzbekistan. DISTRIBUTION. It occurs in the extreme south-east of Turkmenistan, south of Uzbekistan and in the south-western Tajikistan. Outside of Middle Asia the Tajik Racerunner is known from northern Afghanistan. CONSERVATION STATUS. The species is included into the Red Data Book of Turkmenistan (1999) as a rare species – category 3.

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TERRA TYPICA. Region between the Aral and Caspian Seas. DISTRIBUTION. The species is distributed in sandy deserts of Middle Asia, Kazakhstan, eastern Iran, adjacent regions of Afghanistan and northern Belujistan (Pakistan). In North Eurasia it occurs in Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, western Tajikistan and southern Kazakhstan. The northern border of the distribution range runs in Kazakhstan, from north-western coasts of the Caspian Sea along the northern area adjacent to the Aral Sea and southern area adjacent to the Balkhash Lake up to the basin of Alakul Lake in the east. Three subspecies are described, which differ mainly by the color pattern of the dorsal surface of the body. E. s. scripta Strauch, 1867 occupies the most part of the distribution range in Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan. E. s. lasdini Tzarevsky, 1918 lives in the south-east of Uzbekistan and south-western Tajikistan. E. s. pherganensis Szczerbak et Washetko, 1973 is known from Ferganskaya valley, mainly in the northern Tadzhikistan. CONSERVATION STATUS. Fergana Sand racerunner E. s. pherganensis is included into the Red Data Book of Uzbekistan (2003): category 1, EN – endangered, locally distributed endemic subspecies, and of Tajikistan (1997) – the category an endangered subspecies.

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TERRA TYPICA. Town Echmiadzin, Armenia. DISTRIBUTION. In North Eurasia the species is distributed in the eastern Transcaucasia: the valley of the middle current of Aras river, from the south-eastern foothills of the Karabakh range and the valley of Bargushat in the south-east up to the southern spurs of the mountain Aragaz and Oktemberyanskaya steppe in the west, in the Karabakh desert and on the plateau Zuvand, as well as in the south-western Turkmenistan (southern slopes of the mountain ranges Kyupendag, Karagez and Kopet Dagh). Eremias strauchi occurs in eastern Turkey and in the north-west and north-east of Iran, in Iranian Azerbaijan. The species is differentiated into two subspecies. The nominative subspecies is distributed in the eastern Transcaucasia, as well as in the eastern Turkey and Azerbaijani provinces of north-western Iran. The second subspecies, E. s. kopetdaghica Szczerbak 1972 is distributed in Kopet Dagh, northern Khorasan and eastern Mazanderan (Turkmenistan and Iran). CONSERVATION STATUS. The species does not require special protection measures.

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TERRA TYPICA. Kyrgyzstan, region of the Lake Issyk Kul, vicinity of the town Przhevalsk. DISTRIBUTION. This form of the complex “Eremias multiocellata” is distributed in the basin of the Lake Issyk Kul. CONSERVATION STATUS. The species does not require special protection measures.

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TERRA TYPICA. Kyrgyzstan, valley of Arpa River. DISTRIBUTION. This form of the complex “Eremias multiocellata” is distributed in the basin of the river Naryn in Kyrgyzstan, the valley of the rivers At-Bashi and Arpa. Foothills of Moldo-Too, Baibishe- Too, Yaman-Too, At-Bashi and Naryn-Too. CONSERVATION STATUS. Not determined.

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the Ural River). DISTRIBUTION. Rapid racerunner is a widely distributed species, occurring from the eastern part of the North Caucasus and lower region of the Volga River to northern Iran, Afghanistan and eastwards up to north-western China (Xinjiang-Uyghur Autonomous Region., Inner Mongolia and Hansu Province). In North Eurasia the distribution range of the species stretches into the eastern Ciscaucasia, lower region of Volga River, eastern Transcaucasia in the lowland Georgia and Azerbaijan, Middle Asia and Kazakhstan. Several subspecies are described, of which three subspecies occur within the limits of the countries of North Eurasia. E. v. caucasica Lantz, 1828 inhabits eastern Ciscaucasia and Transcaucasia. The most part of the distribution range is occupied by the nominative subspecies E. v. velox, and in the Issyk Kul hollow occurs the subspecies E. v. borkini Eremchenko et Panfilov, 1999, described from the Tien Shan mountains, in Kyrgyzstan (southern shore of the Lake Issyk Kul, from the region between the rivers Ak-Terek and Ak Sai). CONSERVATION STATUS. The species does not require special protection measures.

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TERRA TYPICA. Eastern Turkestan, Yarkend, Kashgaria, China (Xinjiang-Uyghur Autonomous Region). DISTRIBUTION. The main distribution range of the species is situated in north-western China (Xinjiang-Uyghur Autonomous Region, Inner Mongolia) and in Mongolia (Gobi-Altai, Bayan- Khongor, South-Gobi aimaks). An isolated population lives in the Zaissan hollow in the south-east of Kazakhstan. CONSERVATION STATUS. The species is included into the Red Data Book of Kazakhstan (1996): category 4 – not investigated species with a limited distribution range.

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TERRA TYPICA. Town Yarkend, Kashgaria, China (Xinjiang-Uyghur Autonomous Region). DISTRIBUTION. The distribution range of this species is marked by the Tarim basin which includes the southern slopes of Tien Shan, piedmont plains and foothills of Kunlun and eastern Pamir (excluding sands Takla-Makan) in China and eastern Alai in Kirghizia. Earlier this form was considered as a subspecies of multiocellated racerunner E. multiocellata Gunther, 1872. CONSERVATION STATUS. Not determined.

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TERRA TYPICA. South Sweden. DISTRIBUTION. Sand lizard is one of the most widely distributed Eurasian species; its distribution range covers the most part of Europe from western France and north of the Balkan Peninsula to Eastern Siberia, north-western Mongolia and western China in the east (Chinese part of the Mongolian Altai). On the territory of North Eurasia the species occurs from western borders of Moldova, the Ukraine, Belarus, the Baltic States and Russia in the west to the northern area adjacent to Lake Baikal and southern Trans-Baikal area in the east, more or less in parallel with the north border of taiga. It inhabits the Caucasus and Kazakhstan in the south. It is known from Mongolia (Kobdo aimak). In the south-east distribution range covers the eastern Semirechye, north-western Mongolia (Kobdosky aimak) and the western part of Xinjiang-Uyghur Autonomous Region in China. From there it penetrates into Issyk-Kul depression in Kyrgyzstan. Data on the records in piedmonds of Turkestan and Seravshan mountain ranges in eastern Uzbekistan are erroneous Ten subspecific forms are distinguished, the following seven occur in the former Soviet Union. L. a. chersonensis Andrzejowsky, 1832 – Moldova, the right-bank Ukraine, Belarus, the Baltic States, Leningrad region and south of the neighbouring Karelia. In the east, approximately from the left-bank valley of the river Dnieper a narrow area of intergradation with the neighbouring eastern subspecies is noted. L. a. exigua Eichwald, 1831 occupies the whole eastern part of the distribution range up to the Crimean Peninsula and Ciscaucasia in the south. L. a. grusinica Peters, 1960 inhabits the coast of the Black Sea and submontane regions of the Caucasus in the south-west of the Krasnodar Territory, Abkhazia, in the Colchis lowland and Ajaria. L. a. brevicaudata Peters, 1958 occurs in northern and western Armenia, southern Georgia and on the southern slopes of the Great Caucasus range within the North Ossetia. L. a. ioriensis Peters et Muskhelischwili, 1968 occurs on the southern slopes of the Caucasian range: in the valley and ravine of the upper current of the river Iori in Georgia. L. a. boemica Suchow, 1929 inhabits submontane regions of North Ossetia, Ingooshetia, Chechnya and Dagestan. L. a. tauridica Suchow, 1926 inhabits the southern montane Crimea. CONSERVATION STATUS. The species is included into the Red Data Book of Latvia (2003) and Estonia (1998). Its conservation status (category 2) corresponds to the same status of the Bern convention.

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TERRA TYPICA. Tiflis city (=Tbilisi), Georgia. DISTRIBUTION. The most part of the distribution range in North Eurasia is situated in the Caucasus. There it is noted in the Transcaucasia, in eastern and northern Georgia, submontane and montane regions of Azerbaijan and Armenia, as well as in river valleys in interior Dagestan. Besides, it occurs on the coast of the Black Sea of the Krasnodar Territory, Abkhazia and Ajaria. Outside of the Caucasus it is encountered in the eastern Turkey and northwestern Iran. One of the three subspecies, L. m. media Lantz et Cyren, 1920, occurs in the Caucasus. CONSERVATION STATUS. The species is included into the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation (2001): category 3 – a rare species within the limits of Russia with distribution on the extreme northern border of its range. Female (left) and male (right) of Medium Lizard

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TERRA TYPICA. Krasnovodsk, southern Turkmenistan. DISTRIBUTION. L. strigata is widely distributed in North Eurasia. It lives predominantly in the eastern half of the Caucasus, at least up to the latitude of the towns Armavir and Stavropol in the Stavropol Territory in the north-west and the valley of the river Terek and lower reaches of the river Kuma in Dagestan in the north-east. In the eastern Transcaucasia it mainly occurs in the lowland regions of Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia, where it is not known to the west of the Suramsky range. Until recently an isolated population existed in the area of the cape Pizunda in Abkhazia. It also occurs in the south-west of Turkmenistan. Outside of the Caucasus it is known from eastern Turkey and northern Iran. CONSERVATION STATUS. On the most part of the distribution range the number of the species is stable.

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TERRA TYPICA. Vienna, Austria. DISTRIBUTION. It is distributed in middle and southern Europe, in the north-western part of Asia Minor, on the most part of Moldova and south-west of the right-bank Ukraine. On the valley of the river Dnieper it nearly reaches Kiev. In its middle current it appears in the left-bank area, where on the valley of the river Vorskla reaches the Poltava city in the region with the same name. Of five described subspecies L. v. viridis Laurenti, 1768 occurs in the Ukraine and in Moldova. CONSERVATION STATUS. On the most part of the distribution range the number of the species is stable.

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TERRA TYPICA. Basminsk, between Tebriz and Teheran, northern Iran. DISTRIBUTION. The species is distributed in the north-western Iran, in the provinces Eastern Azerbaijan and Esfahan. On the territory of North Eurasia the only record is known in 1880 in the south-eastern Azerbaijan (Talysh). CONSERVATION STATUS. Uncertain due to poor knowledge on the species.

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TERRA TYPICA. Kaiseri, Asia Minor (Turkey). DISTRIBUTION. It is widely distributed in Asia Minor, from where it also penetrates into central and northern Armenia. At present the species is preserved mainly in the Spitak region where it is observed only on areas of difficult access and on unplowed areas. CONSERVATION STATUS. It is included into the Red Data Books of the USSR (1984) and Armenia (1987) as an endangered species. It is protected by the Bern Convention. This species was referred to subgenus Parvilacerta Harris, Arnold et Thomas, 1998. This subgenus includes 2 species: Parvilacerta fraasii (Lehrs, 1910) and Parvilacerta parva (Boulenger, 1887).

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TERRA TYPICA. Synd, between Karachi and Sukkur. DISTRIBUTION. The species is widely distributed on the whole Iranian Plateau and in Afghanistan, comes into southern Turkmenistan. In North Eurasia it occurs only in the south of Turkmenistan up to the vicinity of the town Chärjew in the east. Previously this form was considered as a subspecies of M. guttulata. CONSERVATION STATUS. In Turkmenistan the status of the populations is rather stable and does not require special conservation measures. It is protected on the territory of the Badkhyz Nature Reserve.

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TERRA TYPICA. Vicinity of Baku city, Azerbaijan. DISTRIBUTION. The species is widely distributed in the northeast of the Balkan Peninsula, some islands of the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas, Sinai Peninsula, Asia Minor, Middle East and the Caucasus to Pakistan and north-western India in the east. On the territory of North Eurasia it occurs in the Caucasus in Azerbaijan, Armenia and eastern Georgia, approximately to the city Tbilisi in the west. There are data which require confirmation about the occurrence of an isolated population in the North Caucasus in the submontane Chechnya. Of six known subspecies only O. e .elegans occurs in the Transcaucasia. CONSERVATION STATUS. The status of the populations on the whole distribution range is stable and does not require special protection measures.

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TERRA TYPICA. North of the Crimean Peninsula. DISTRIBUTION. The distribution range of the species covers the countries of the Balkan Peninsula, western Turkey, as well as the south of the Ukraine and Moldova. It is widely distributed in the Crimea, in the Kherson, Nikolaev and Odessa regions in the southwest of the Ukraine and in the south of Moldova. Of several known subspecies P. t. taurica occurs in the Ukraine and in Moldova. CONSERVATION STATUS. The species does not require special measures on its protection.

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TERRA TYPICA. Amur region. DISTRIBUTION. It occurs in north-eastern China, Korea and Japan (the island Zussima). In North Eurasia it lives in Russian Far East – in the southern regions of the Primorsky and Khabarovsk Territories. CONSERVATION STATUS. The species does not require special measures on its protection.

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TERRA TYPICA. Chemul’po, Korea. DISTRIBUTION. It occurs in Korea, south-east Manchuria and eastern China from where it penetrates into the south of the Primorsky Territory approximately to the valley of the river Iman in Russia. CONSERVATION STATUS. Not determined.

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Vienna, Austria. DISTRIBUTION. One of the most widely distributed Eurasian species. A common species in the northern half of Eurasia from Ireland and the Pyrenean Peninsula in the west to the Shantarskie islands, the Sakhalin island and northern Japan in the east. It occurs in Mongolia, in the Mongolian Altai, in Bain-Ulug, Khubsugul and Central aimaks, China (Chinese Altai in the Xinjiang-Uyghur Autonomous Region). In Russia the northern border of the distribution range from the coast of the Kola Peninsula in the north-west continues behind the Polar Circle up to the lower current of Yenisei River. Further to the east it crossed the valleys of Lena River and its tributaries (Vilyui and Aldan). In Far East it comes out to the sea somewhat to the south of the valley of the river Uda. The southern border of the distribution range from the Trans-Carpathians continues to the east between forest-steppe and steppe. In Ukraine the most southern, evidently isolated habitats are known in the Novomoskovsk district of the Dnepropetrovsk region. It occurs everywhere on the Sakhalin Island. On the whole extensive distribution area of the viviparous lizard four subspecies are distinguished: Zootoca vivipara carniolica Mayer, Böhme, Tiedemann & Bischoff, 2000, Zootoca vivipara pannonica (Lac & Kluch, 1968), Zootoca vivipara sachalinensis (Pereleshin & Terentjev, 1963) and Zootoca vivipara vivipara (Jacquin, 1787). In North Eurasia the subspecies Z. v. vivipara (Jacquin, 1787) and Zootoca vivipara sachalinensis (Pereleshin & Terentjev, 1963) are distributed. CONSERVATION STATUS. The species does not require special measures on its protection.

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TERRA TYPICA. Settlement Terskol on the Baksan River, Kabardino- Balkaria, Russia. DISTRIBUTION. Endemic of the high-mountainous Caucasus. It occurs in the high-altitude part of the western half of the Great Caucasus Range – from Elbrus in the east to the mountains Fisht and Osten in the west. The eastern border of the distribution range runs in the upper reaches of Baksan River on the south-eastern slopes of Elbrus and mountain Cheget in Kabardino-Balkaria. Further to the west it is widely distributed in the upper reaches of the rivers Kuban’, Teberda, Zelenchuck, Laba, Belaya and others flowing down to the north. It inhabits the southern slopes of the Caucasus: in the upper reaches of the Bzyb River and its tributaries in Abkhazia and the upper reaches of Mzymta River in the southeast of the Krasnodar Territory. CONSERVATION STATUS. The number is rather stable everywhere within of its distribution range. The species is included into the Red Data Book of IUCN with the status DD.

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TERRA TYPICA. Settlement Yelenovka (= Sevan) on the shore of the Sevan Lake, Armenia. DISTRIBUTION. It is widely distributed in the mountains of northwestern and northern Armenia and adjacent regions of southern Georgia and western Azerbaijan. Outside of the Caucasus it is also known from the north-western Turkey. In 1967 D. armeniaca was introduced into the Ukraine. At present this parthenogenetic species formes a stable extensive population in the rock canyon of Teterev River of the Zhitomir region. CONSERVATION STATUS. The number is high and stable everywhere within the whole distribution range.

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TERRA TYPICA. Settlement Krasnaya Polyana in the south of the Krasnodar Territory, Russia. DISTRIBUTION. Endemic of the montane Caucasus. It is widely distributed in the western part of the Great Caucasus Range, on northern, western and south-western slopes of the Black Sea chain of the Great Range in the Krasnodar Territory, Abkhazia and north-western and south-western Georgia, to the canyons of the rivers Kodory and Ingury in lower and upper Svanetia in the east. The northern border of its distribution passes in the area of the middle current of numerous left tributaries of the Kuban River. The most northern habitats of the species are known in the vicinity of Goryachyi Klyuch on Psekupsa River and the vicinity of the town Maikop. The southern border of the distribution range stretches on the southern slopes of the Great Range and, gradually lowing down, on the western spurs of the Gagra range. It comes out to the sea in the south of the Krasnodar Territory and western Abkhazia, where it is sporadically recorded on the coast from the ALPINE LIZARD DAREVSKIA ALPINA (DAREVSKY, 1967) ARMENIAN LIZARD DAREVSKIA ARMENIACA (MEHELY, 1909) BRAUNER’S ROCK LIZARD DAREVSKIA BRAUNERI (MEHELY, 1909) 81 L A C E R T I D A E town Anapa in the north up to the canyons of the rivers Khoby and Riony in the south-west of Georgia. The nominative subspecies D. b. brauneri occurs in the south of the Krasnodar Territory, in Abkhazia and adjacent regions of Georgia. D. b. darevskii (Szczerbak, 1962) inhabits foothills of the western part of the Great Caucasus range, mainly within the Krasnodar Territory. A comparatively small range of the subspecies D. b. szczerbaki (Lukina, 1963) occupies a narrow strip of coastal rocky steeps, sporadically occurring along the coast of the Black Sea from the town Anapa in the north and for more than 100 km further to the south-east towards Novorossiisk. CONSERVATION STATUS. On the most part of the distribution range the number of the species is rather high and stable.

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TERRA TYPICA. Kazbek Mountain, Georgia. DISTRIBUTION. Endemic of the Great Caucasus. It is widely distributed on the northern and southern slopes of the Great Caucasus Range from the northern foothills of Elbrus in Kabardino-Balkaria in the west up to the south-eastern extreme point of its Caspian chain within Azerbaijan in the east. South-western border of the distribution range passes on the southern foothills of Megrel’sky, Svanetsky and Lekhchumsky mountain ranges in lower Svanetia, and then coming down within South Ossetia approximately up to the latitude of the health-resort Dzhava. Along the southern spurs of Kharul’sky, Kartalinsky and Kakhetinsky mountain ranges it comes out into the slopes of the Water Dividing (Watershed) Range in the Alazan River valley of Georgia. In Azerbaijan this border continues in the upper reaches of the rivers beginning from the Great Range, and further in the east – from the slopes of the mountains Baba- Dag and Dyubrar, in particular of the rivers Pirsagat and Sumgait. This lizard is also widely distributed on the northern slopes of the Great Caucasus, from the Baksan ravine in Kabardino-Balkaria in the west to Samur range in the South Dagestan in the east. The north-western border of the distribution area passes here in the Baksan ravine approximately from the town Tegenekly in the south, continuing then to the east on the northern foothills of the Skalisty and Bokovoi ranges. There the most northern habitats are known from the ravine Adyr-su, near the waterfall in the Chegemskaya gorge, from the vicinity of the Blue Lakes in Kabardino-Balkaria and the vicinity of Alagir and the settlement Balta in the lower part of the Dar’yal ravine of North Ossetia. In the foothills and on the northern slopes of the Andiysky mountain range in the south-eastern Chechnya and possibly in the adjacent part of Ingooshetia occurs a narrow-ranged subspecies D. c. vedenica (Darevsky et Roitberg, 1999). CONSERVATION STATUS. The number of the species everywhere within its distribution range is high and stable.

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TERRA TYPICA. Town Enzely, Iran, southern coast of the Caspian Sea. DISTRIBUTION. It inhabits mainly forested northern and northwestern foothills of the Elburz range in northern Iran and Lenkoran lowland in the south-eastern foothills of the Talysh range in the south-east of Azerbaijan. There the most northern habitats are known from the valley of Vilyazhchai River. CONSERVATION STATUS. On the most part of the distribution range the number of the species is high and stable.

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TERRA TYPICA. 20 km to the west from the settlement Borchka, vilajet Artvin, north-eastern Turkey. DISTRIBUTION. The main distribution range of the species occupies the northern spurs of the East-Pontic mountains in the north-east of Turkey, at least up to the vilajet Giresun in the west. A small isolated area of the distribution range is known on the western slopes of the mountain Mtirala in the vicinity of the town Batumi in the south-west of Ajaria (Georgia). CONSERVATION STATUS. As a rare species the species was included into the Red Data Book of the USSR (1984) – category 3 and the Red Data Book of IUCN with the status ENC2a.

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TERRA TYPICA. Settlement Levashi in the region with the same name of central Dagestan. DISTRIBUTION. It occurs in the montane Dagestan, southern Chechnya, Ingooshetia and south-east of north Ossetia, from the lower part of the Dar’yal ravine in the west up to Gimrinsky range in the east. The northern border of the distribution area passes in the foothills of the Skalisty range in the upper current of numerous right tributaries of Sunja River. Further on the extreme north-eastern foothills of the frontal ranges of Dagestan it attains the nearest vicinity of Makhachkala city in the east. An isolated population lives also on the southern slope of the Great Caucasus range in the canyon of the river Bol’shaya Liakhvy on the territory of South Ossetia in Georgia. CONSERVATION STATUS. On the most part of the distribution range the number is stable.

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TERRA TYPICA. Settlement Shagaly, Armenia. DISTRIBUTION. It is comparatively widely distributed in the north Armenia and southern Georgia up to the foothills area in the valley of Kura River in the north. The recent distribution range is divided into some isolated populations. CONSERVATION STATUS. On the most part of the distribution range the number is stable.

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TERRA TYPICA. Valley of Lar, to the north-west of Teheran, northern Iran. DISTRIBUTION. The distribution range of the species covers practically all Alborz range in the north of Iran and adjacent east Kopet Dagh range both in its Iranian part and in the south of the neighbouring Turkmenistan. In Turkmenistan the species is very rare and once it was considered to be extinct. In central Kopet Dagh it is known here from a few points in the ravines Sushanka and Bol’shie Karanki. CONSERVATION STATUS. In Iran the number of the species is high and stable. In Turkmenistan the number is catastrophically declining. The species is included into the Red Data Book of Turkmenistan (1999): category 3 – a rare species on the periphery of the distribution range.

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TERRA TYPICA. Vicinity of the town Artvin, north-eastern Turkey. DISTRIBUTION. South-west of the Krasnodar Territory, western and north-eastern Georgia and the extreme north-west of Azerbaijan. Outside of the Caucasus it occurs on the extreme north-east of Turkey. Of 6 described subspecies 5 are distributed in the Caucasus. D. d. silvatica (Bartenjev et Reznikova, 1931) inhabits submontane part of the Krasnodar Territory mainly in the Caucasian Biosphere State Reserve and the adjacent spurs of the Great Caucasus. D. d. boehmei (Bischoff, 1982) lives in the western spurs of the Great Caucasus in Krasnodar Territory and adjoining regions of Abkhazia up to the valley of the river Kodor in the south-east. D. d. abchasica (Bischoff, 1982) inhabits the coast of the Black Sea of Abkhazia and the adjacent regions of western Georgia, D. d. barani (Bischoff, 1982) is known from coastal mountain regions of Ajaria and of neighbouring part of north-eastern Turkey. D. d. orlowae (Bischoff, 1984) inhabits southern slopes and foothills of the Great Caucasus in Georgia and north-western Azerbaijan. CONSERVATION STATUS. The number is rather high and stable.

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TERRA TYPICA. Ravine of small Charnali River in the lower reaches of the river Chorokh in the extreme south-west of Ajaria (southwestern Georgia) and the adjacent part of Turkey. DISTRIBUTION. It occurs on a limited territory in the north-eastern foothills of the Pontic range, within extreme south-west of Ajaria in Georgia and adjoining regions of north-eastern Turkey. The distribution is not sufficiently studied. CONSERVATION STATUS. The number is rather high and stable.

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TERRA TYPICA. The Crimean Peninsula. DISTRIBUTION. The distribution range of the species is limited by the mountain Crimea from Sevastopol in the west up to the cape Kiik-Atlam near the town Feodosia in the east. The northern border of the distribution range runs on the northern slopes of the Crimean Mountains through the towns Bakhchisarai, Simferopol and the vicinity of the settlement Vishennoe in the Belgorod region. A small isolated population lives on the rocks Adalary near Gurzuf. CONSERVATION STATUS. The number is rather high and stable.

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TERRA TYPICA. Town Abastumani in south-western Georgia. DISTRIBUTION. Endemic of Georgia. The recent distribution range forms some more or less extensive isolates mainly situated on the slopes of the Meskhetsky range within Ajaria and western Georgia up to Borzhomi ravine in the valley of Kura River and north-western slopes of Trialetsky range in the east. Isolated populations live on the southern slopes of Lechkhumsky and Rachinsky ranges in the foothills of Great Caucasus, where this lizard is known from the vicinity of the towns Kutaisi, Tkvibuli and the health-resort Labarde. Its distribution in the foothills of the Great Caucasus Range is still not sufficiently studied. CONSERVATION STATUS. The number in the most of known populations is rather high and stable.

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TERRA TYPICA. Town Artvin, north-eastern Turkey. DISTRIBUTION. The distribution range of the species covers north-eastern Turkey (approximately from Erzerum in the west and from the valley of the upper current of Aras River in the south) and northern and southern foothills and spurs of the Meskhetsky range within Ajaria and neighbouring regions of Georgia from the coast of the Black Sea in the west up to the middle current of Kura River in the east. There are local isolated populations in the ravines of several lateral tributaries of the river Kura (Akhaldaba, Baniskhevi, Azkuri and others). In Georgia and in the ravine of the lower current of river Chorokh in Turkey occurs subspecies D. p. adjarica (Darevsky et Eiselt, 1980). The remaining part of the distribution range is occupied by the nominative subspecies D. p. parvula. CONSERVATION STATUS. On the most part of the distribution range the number of the species is high and stable.

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TERRA TYPICA. City Tiflis (= Tbilisi), Georgia. DISTRIBUTION. The main distribution range of the species occupies right-bank section of the valley of middle current of Kura River and the ravine of its right tributaries within Georgia, northern Armenia and north-western Azerbaijan. It covers the area from Gori in the west up to northern foothills of the ranges of the Lesser Caucasus in the lower and middle current of the rivers flowing into Kura River: Algeti, Khrami, Debeta, Akstafa-chai, Gyandzhachai and others in the south-east. Big population, isolated now from the main distribution range, is known in the valley of middle current of the left tributary of Kura River – river Iori on the southern slopes of the Zivgamborsky range. A great zoogeographical interest represents an isolated population of this species discovered in south-western Azerbaijan, in the ravine of upper current of Akar River, belonging to the basin of Aras River. Presence of D. portschinskii in the southern foothills of Lesser Caucasus can be connected with a radical reconstruction of river systems which was taking place on the territory of Transcaucasia in the postglacial period. The nominative subspecies D. p. portschinskii occupies the most part of the distribution range. In the ravines of right tributaries of Kura River – the rivers Mashavera in Georgia and Debeta in Armenia – occurs D. p. nigrita (Bakradze, 1976). CONSERVATION STATUS. On the most part of the distribution range the number is high and stable.

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TERRA TYPICA. Settlement Narzan, North Caucasus. DISTRIBUTION. It occurs in the north-west of the Balkan Peninsula from one side and within the Caucasus and adjacent part of Iran from the other side. It is sporadically distributed on the both sides of the Great Caucasus Range within the limits of the Krasnodar and Stavropol Territories, in Kabardino-Balkaria, North Ossetia, Chechnya, Ingooshetia and Dagestan, and in the Transcaucasia – on the coast of the Black Sea of Abkhazia, in north Georgia, northern Azerbaijan. Isolated part of range lies in south-east Azerbaijan and in the north of Armenia. D. p. praticola inhabits the most part of the distribution range. D. d. pontica (Lantz et Cyren, 1919) inhabits the coast of the Black Sea and north-western Caucasus. CONSERVATION STATUS. On the most part of the distribution range the number is high and stable.

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TERRA TYPICA. Vicinity of the settlement Ijevan, Armenia. DISTRIBUTION. It has a comparatively limited distribution range in the northern Armenia and adjacent regions of Azerbaijan. The recent distribution range is divided into several more or less isolated populations. One of them, now extinct, existed on the north-eastern shore of the Lake Sevan in Armenia. CONSERVATION STATUS. The number is stable.

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TERRA TYPICA. Town Trapezund (Trabzon), north-eastern Turkey. DISTRIBUTION. The species is widely distributed, mainly in the western Transcaucasia, and in the north – in the montane Ingooshetia, Chechnya, neighbouring Dagestan and in northern Ossetiya. Outside of the Caucasus it is widely distributed in the northern half of Turkey. Of eight described subspecies the five occur in the Caucasus. D. r. bischoffi (Boehme et Budak, 1977) occurs in Ajaria. D. r. obscura (Lantz et Cyren, 1936) inhabits the valley and adjoining slopes of mountains of the upper current of Kura river within Georgia. D. r. macromaculata (Darevsky, 1967) is recorded in the ravine of the right tributary of Kura River, river Akhalkalakichai in southern Georgia. D. r. svanetica (Darevsky et Eiselt, 1980) occurs in the ravine of the upper current of the river Inguri in Svanetia (western Georgia). D. r. chechenica (Eiselt et Darevsky, 1991) is widely distributed on the southern slopes of the Great Caucasus from lower Svanetia in the west up to northwestern Azerbaijan in the east, and also isolatedly on the northern slopes within the limits of the montane Chechnya and Dagestan. CONSERVATION STATUS. The number of the species is high and stable everywhere.

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TERRA TYPICA. Town Kislovodsk, Stavropol Territory. DISTRIBUTION. The main distribution range of the species covers the northern slopes of the Rocky range within Karachaevo- Cherkesskaya Autonomous Region, south of the Stavropol Territory and Kabardino-Balkaria, from the valley of the upper current of Kuban’ River and its tributaries in the west up to the ravine of the middle current of the river Chegem in the east. The most northern isolated population (which was considered as extinct) lives in the southern foothills of the Stavropol Upland, in the limits of the Alexandrovsky region of the Stavropol Territory. The southern border of the distribution range passes on the north-eastern spurs of the mountain Elbrus in the ravine of the river Kuban, and, crossing the Rocky Range (known from the Mariinsky pass), continues further on its watershed in the upper reaches of the rivers Kuma, Podkumok, Alikanovka, Beryozovaya, Zolka and others. On the ravine of the river Baksan it comes up to the town Tyrny-Auza and goes from the Chegem waterfalls up along the Chegem River gorge. CONSERVATION STATUS. The number is high and stable.

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TERRA TYPICA. Settlement Akhta, ravine of the river Razdan, northern Armenia. DISTRIBUTION. The distribution range of the species is divided into several isolated populations within the northern and central high-mountain Armenia and the adjacent regions of eastern Turkey, from where along the valley of Kura River this lizard penetrates into southern Georgia. Outside of the Caucasus it occurs in the valley of the river Aras in eastern Turkey. CONSERVATION STATUS. The number is high and stable.

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TERRA TYPICA. Town Bazarchai (Basarkent), Sisiansky region, eastern Armenia. DISTRIBUTION. The recent distribution range of the species is divided into several of more or less extensive isolates, attributed to the steppe high-mountain regions of the mountain-steppe zone of Armenia, Azerbaijan, southern Georgia and eastern Turkey. The most extensive areas of the distribution range are occupied by the high-mountain zone of the Gegamsky range up to the shores of Sevan Lake in the north, a ring-like high-mountain area of the Aragaz mount and a high-mountain plateau in the foothills of the Childyrsky and Javakhetsky ranges in the extreme north-west of Armenia and adjoining regions of southern Georgia. Besides, it is encountered on the Ardenissky range confining the basin of Sevan Lake from the south. Further to the east it inhabits all high-mountain part of the Karabakh Upland within the limits of Nagorny Karabakh. Outside of the Caucasus, covering the mountains, surrounding the Lake Van, the species is widely distributed in north-eastern, eastern and south-eastern Turkey, at least from the range Palandeken in the vilajet Erzerum in the west. Probably it penetrates into the high-mountain region of extreme west on the territory of the neighbouring Iran. Three subspecies are described. The nominative subspecies D. v. valentini is distributed in the whole Transcaucasia. D. v. lantzicyreni (Darevsky et Eiselt, 1967) occurs on the most part of Turkey. The third subspecies D. v. spitzenbergerae (Eiselt, Darevsky et Schmidtler, 1992) is known only from the type locality in the vilajet Khakyari in the extreme south-east of Turkey. CONSERVATION STATUS. On the most part of the distribution area the number of the species is high and stable.

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TERRA TYPICA. China, Chifu (now Yantai, Shandun Province). DISTRIBUTION. The species is widely distributed in the eastern part of Mongolia, in China (from the lake Kukunor up to Shanghai city), in the western part of the Korean Peninsula and in Russia, in the southern Buryatia (to the north approximately up to Ulan- Ude city) and in the extreme south-west of the Chita region. In Mongolia the most part of the findings are attributed to the north and east from the range Khangai in Kobdos, Gobi-Altai, Dzabkhan, Bayan-Khongor, South-Gobi, Middle-Gobi, Central, Bulan, Selengin, Khentei, East-Gobi, Sukhe-Bator and Eastern aimaks. Of two known subspecies within North Eurasia occurs the western one – E. a. barbouri Schmidt, 1925. CONSERVATION STATUS. The species (E. a. barbouri) is included into the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation (2001): category 4 – species uncertain in its status distributed in Russia on the extreme border of its distribution range.

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TERRA TYPICA. Interstream area of the rivers Ural and Emba. DISTRIBUTION. The distribution range stretches from northeastern Romania in the west to south-western Mongolia (Jungar Gobi) and north-western China (Xinjiang-Uyghur Autonomous Region and Inner Mongolia) in the east, Turkey and Iran in the south. Within the limits of North Eurasia it is widely distributed from the steppe zone of Moldova, the Ukraine and the European part of Russia including North Caucasus and the area of the Volga river in the west, to Kazakhstan, the Republics of Middle Asia and Mongolia in the east. In Mongolia records are known in the southern part of the Kobdos aimak and in the Gobi-Altai aimak. Disjuncted from the main distribution range the species occurs in the eastern Transcaucasia, within the limits of Azerbaijan, eastern Georgia and the basin of the Sevan Lake in Armenia. The most northern, evidently isolated habitats are known in the Volzhsko-Kamsky Territory from the Samara bend and Buzuluksky coniferous forest. The species is divided into 6 subspecies which are different, in particular, by the above-described types of the coloration of the body and the size proportions. E. a. arguta (Pallas, 1773) – is distributed in the western Kazakhstan. E. a. deserti (Gmelin, 1789) – occupies the whole western part of the distribution range from the river Ural in the east up to the eastern part of the North Caucasus in the south-west. E. a. transcaucasica Darevsky, 1953 inhabits eastern Transcaucasia, E. a. uzbekistanica Chernov, 1934 – Uzbekistan and the frontier regions of Turkmenistan, southern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. E. a. darevskii Tsaruk, 1986 – Issyk Kul hollow in Kyrgyzstan. E. a. potanini Bedriaga, 1912 lives in the area adjacent to the Balkhash Lake and Zaisan hollow in Kazakhstan. CONSERVATION STATUS. The steppe – runner E. a. potanini is included into the Red Data Book of Mongolia (1997) as a rare species, it is protected on the territory of the Great Gobi reservation. E. a. uzbekistanica is included into the Red Data Book of Turkmenistan (1999) as a species which habitats are destroyed the number of is reducing (category 2). E. a. transcaucasica is included into the Red Data Book of Armenia (1987) with the status “species disjuncted from the main distribution range”. E. a. deserti is included into the Red Data Book of Moldova (2001): category – Critically Endangered species.

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TERRA TYPICA. Karakum, Turkmenistan. DISTRIBUTION. Middle Asia within the plains of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, middle and southern Kazakhstan. The northern border of the distribution range runs in Kazakhstan, in some places nearly attaining 49°N. Outside of Middle Asia it also occurs in the north-east of Iran (eastern Khorasan), in the adjacent plain regions of Afghanistan to the north of Hindu Kush, as well as in the east up to the western regions of the Xinjiang-Uyghur Autonomous Region, China. CONSERVATION STATUS. The number is stable and does not require special measures on its maintenance.

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TERRA TYPICA. Kyzyl Kum, region of Aral-Caspian deserts. DISTRIBUTION. Middle Asia within the limits of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, extreme west of Tajikistan and Kazakhstan. The northern border of the distribution range stretches in Kazakhstan from the north-eastern coast of the Caspian Sea and northern coasts of the Aral Sea to the north of the Balkhash Lake across the desert Betpack-Dala up to the basin of the Lake Alakol’. CONSERVATION STATUS. The number is stable. The species does not require species conservation measures.

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TERRA TYPICA. Settlement Sary-Jaz, ravine Terekty, Kyrgyzstan. DISTRIBUTION. This form of the complex “Eremias multiocellata” is known from the central Tien Shan (basin of the river Sary-Jaz), Kyrgyzstan and China (Xinjiang-Uyghur Autonomous Region, including Kashgaria in the southern Tien Shan). Populations of this species were referred earlier to Eremias buechneri. CONSERVATION STATUS. Undetermined.

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TERRA TYPICA. Betwen Faizabad and Nuzi, eastern Iran. DISTRIBUTION. The republics of the Middle Asia within Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, southern and south-eastern Tajikistan and south of Kazakhstan, where it occurs isolatedly in the area adjacent to the Balkhash Lake. Besides, it is distributed in the north-eastern Iran (Khorasan) and northern Afghanistan. CONSERVATION STATUS. The species does not require special conservation measure.

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TERRA TYPICA. Desert Gobi, the road between Sume and river Tola, Mongolia. DISTRIBUTION. It inhabits montane and partly submontane regions of Tien Shan and Pamir-Altai in Kyrgyzstan, eastern and south-eastern Kazakhstan and neighbouring Uzbekistan. It is known in Tuva and widely distributed in Mongolia (Bayan Ulug, Kobdo, Ubsunur, Dzabkhan, Gobi-Altai, Bayan-Khongor, Uver- Khangai, South-Gobi, Eastern-Gobi and Middle-Gobi aimaks). It is also known from north-western China southwards to the mountain ranges of Nan Shan and north-eastern Tibet, in the desert Alashan and the southern part of Mongolia in the east. During recent years the taxonomic status of some subspecific forms was revised, they are considered as separate species. CONSERVATION STATUS. As a narrow-ranged and small in number species it is included into the Red Data Book of Kazakhstan (1996): category 4 – a rare species, known by single specimens.

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TERRA TYPICA. Sistan, Iran. DISTRIBUTION. It occurs in the extreme south-east of Turkmenistan, in southern Uzbekistan and in the south-west of Tajkistan up to Kurgan-Tyube and Pyandzh river in the north-east of Iran and in the north of Afghanistan. CONSERVATION STATUS. The species is included into the Red Data Book of Turkmenistan (1999): category 2 – species, the habitats and number of which are sharply reducing, and into the Red Data Book of Uzbekistan (2003) – vulnerable, reducing, mosaically distributed species (2/VU:D).

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TERRA TYPICA. Settlement Nyuvadi in the ravine of the Aras River, south-east Armenia. DISTRIBUTION. It is widely distributed in the mountains of Lesser Caucasus, in the most part of the southern and northern Armenia, southern and southern-east Azerbaijan and the ravine of the upper current of Kura River in western Georgia. In the Transcaucasia the distribution range consists of many isolated populations of different size associated with the ravines of small rivers flowing down to the river Aras in the south, and tributaries of the river Kura in the north. Outside the Caucasus it occurs in eastern Turkey (to the east of the Lake Van) and in the adjacent north-western Iran. AZERBAIJAN LIZARD DAREVSKIA RADDEI (BOETTGER, 1892) MEADOW LIZARD DAREVSKIA PRATICOLA (EVERSMANN, 1834) RI V ER KURA LIZARD DAREVSKIA PORTSCHINSKI I (KESSLER, 1678) 88 88L A C E R T I D A E The southern border of its distribution range is not exactly determined. Intraspecific taxonomy is still not clear. Three subspecies are described. The nominative subspecies D. r. raddei inhabits the most part of Armenia and Azerbaijan, in the basin of the Lake Sevan in Armenia (mainly in the western part of the republic). In the ravine of the upper current of the river Kura in Georgia occurs D. r. nairensis, considered by some taxonomists as a distinct species. D. r. vanensis (Eiselt, Schmidtler et Darevsky, 1993) occurs in the eastern part of the basin of Lake Van in Turkey and in the neighbouring Iran. CONSERVATION STATUS. In the most part of the distribution range the number of the species is high and stable.

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We tested intra-population morphological variability and the ontogeny of sexual dimorphism in a sample of 78 individuals of Lacerta agilis (Linnaeus, 1758) from the Bistra Mountain in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. The effect of predation was also assessed by examining the animals’ tails. In 43.8% of individuals of all age classes tails were missing or regenerated, which means that lizards are subjected to high predation at this locality. After measuring, marking and photographing, all animals were released into their natural habitat. The set of 17 linear measurements and body mass were taken for each individual, and snout-vent length was taken as a standard descriptor of body size. Among adults, significant sexual dimorphism was recorded in body size, head dimensions and distance between front and hind limbs, while sexual dimorphism was not observed in juveniles. Females had greater body size and distance between front and hind limbs, while males had proportionately larger heads. Static allometric trajectories of adult females and males were assessed, and they diverged only for head and mouth width. Divergence of ontogenetic allometric trajectories was significant for all measurements except the dimensions of the fourth toe on the front and hind limbs. Sexual dimorphism pattern in sand lizards from Bistra Mountain was in concordance with previous studies. Larger adult female body size could be interpreted as a result of sexual selection for fecundity, while larger male heads could result from selection for greater bite force in two ways: intra-sexual selection (between males) in relation to territory defense, and inter- sexual in relation to copulatory bites. Sexual dimorphism was not significant among juveniles: adults apparently attain a different morphology through diverging allometric trajectories during growth. Further studies should include populations of sand lizards from different habitat types to further assess patterns of intra-specific morphological variability.

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To investigate the impact of nuptial coloration (the badge) on male fitness in the Swedish sand lizard (Lacerta agilis), we conducted a manipulation experiment in a natural population. Males in one group had their badges enlarged by being painted as cheaters and were compared to a control group with respect to mate acquisition, body condition and survival. Badge enlargement did not affect survival, but elevated mate acquisition by almost 400%, and body condition in small males. This increase in condition is likely to stem from greater access to female-associated sites with high food availability.